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Soc. Criminal justice system > SOC110 midterm > Flashcards

SOC110 midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Is Psychology a micro-level or macro-level field of study?

A

Micro-level because it focuses on the behaviours of one human at a time.

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2
Q

Is Sociology a micro-level or macro-level field of study?

A

Macro-level because it focuses on societies and how they are shaped by their environment.

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3
Q

Give examples of Non-Empirical knowledge (6)

A

-Not scientific, not systematic
-Personal expériences
-Observations
-Intuitions
-Instinctive processes
-Common sense

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4
Q

Give examples of Empirical knowledge (2)

A

-Systematic and scientific methods
-Measurement, data collection and analysis

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5
Q

What is the definition of Sociological Research Methods?

A

Research methods comprise a systematic process of inquiry applied in such a manner as to learn something about our social world (Saylor Academy, 2012).

Engaging and thinking critically about the social world.

Contribute to develop, understand and shape social life.

In other words, they are a formal way to act on social issues and engage in critical thinking.

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6
Q

Name the 7 characteristics of sociological science.

A
  1. Empirical
  2. Develop generalization
  3. Objectivity and subjectivity
  4. Self-correcting
  5. Constantly evolving
  6. Never-ending
  7. Concerned with theory
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7
Q

Explain this characteristic from the 7th of sociological science (Empirical).

A

-Use of scientific methods
-Understanding and explaining social phenomenon
-Considering the influence of environment and living contexts

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8
Q

Explain this characteristic from the 7th of sociological science (Develop generalizations).

A

There is an acknowledgement that everyone is different, and it is impossible to study everyone; therefore, researchers can only generalize their work.

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9
Q

Explain this characteristic from the 7th of sociological science (Objectivity and subjectivity).

A

Objectivity tries to eliminate biases. Some sociologists think that it is impossible to be completely objective. They think that people are constantly influenced by their surroundings, which has an effect on the questions, the data, etc. Some think it is bad to be subjective, while others think it is good. Eg: women might be more comfortable asking questions to other women

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10
Q

Explain these characteristics from the 7th of sociological science (Self-correcting and Constanly evolving).

A

As we get new findings, they should change and, therefore, contradict old studies and knowledge.

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11
Q

Explain this characteristic from the 7th of sociological science (Never ending).

A

We can never know the whole story because so many factors can influence and interact with how people act. Therefore, we should use flexible words because any scientific knowledge could be discredited in future studies. Also, we need to be careful not to overgeneralize because most studies are done in a very specific context and with a specific population.

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12
Q

Explain this characteristic from the 7th of sociological science (Concerned with theory).

A

-How things work
-Make future predictions

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13
Q

What are the objectives of sociological science? (4)

A

-Describe and understand social phenomenon
-Discover regularities
-Develop theories
-Discover how different events are associated

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14
Q

What is the definition of Applied social research?

A

-Application of the results
-Aim to demonstrate an impact
-Connect research to action

It is really hard to achieve because Social researchers want to apply their results in social life but sometimes fall short of doing it due to inconsistencies in the translation of the findings to the targetted population.

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15
Q

What strategies can be used to facilitate the translation of research results into action?

A

-Identify an applied research purpose: eg the target of the research is homelessness and researchers want to find solution to reduce it.

-Identify those who need and who are receptive to the knowledge you want to develop

-Share your results with applied partners: Have partners that work with that specific problem or population or that have this specific problem or population. eg: If the problem is drug use, find partners that are nurses or drug users

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16
Q

What is the definition of Basic research?

A

-Contribution to develop and understand new knowledge with no applied goal

-Contributes to understand a phenomenon like concepts, underlying principles, theories

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17
Q

Give a famous example of Basic research

A

The social learning theory of Bandura

Explication: The Bobo doll experiment was created to observe the aggression and copying mechanism of children.

Findings: Children who observed aggression of the Bobo doll had more chances of also taking their frustration in an aggressive way. Those who did not see aggression against the Bobo doll were less likely to be aggressive against it.

The research had no intention of solving and changing the social world, but still found very important information about copying mechanism and aggression of children.

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18
Q

Name the 6 key concepts and terms

A
  1. Key concept
  2. Operational definiton
  3. Hypothesis
  4. Variables
  5. Population
  6. Data collection methods and tools
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19
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Key concept)

A

Themes regarding the topic of interest

E.g., If the main topic is gender, we need to find words related to that, so men, women, and non-binary. Generally, between 2 and 4 key concepts per topic

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20
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Operational definition)

A

Clear definition of each concept

What exactly is the concept that you study? Eg: concept of homlesness What is homelessness in my study (only people in the street or couch surfing counts?, what is the region i want to study?, does the people that once were homless count or is it only people who are currenltly homeless?)

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21
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Hypothesis)

A

Statements to test, used to develop theories

It is mainly used in experimental research.

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22
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Variables)

A

Dependant and independant

Dependant: the one you are measuring

Independent: variable that you manipulate and change

Often you want to look at the effect of the manipulation of the independent variable.

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23
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Population)

A

Group of people that you are studying. You need to define the age, gender, socioeconomic status, etc.

Since it is impossible to have everyone from the target population you need a sample.

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24
Q

Explain this key concept or term from the 6 (Data collection methods and tools)

A

Refers to the tools you use to collect the data like questionnaires and surveys.

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25
Q

What are the nine steps to undertake research?

A
  1. Chose a topic
  2. Review the Literature
  3. Formulate the problem
  4. Develop the research question
  5. Choose and organize the research design
  6. Gather the data
  7. Analyse the data
  8. Interpret the data
  9. Communicate the findings
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26
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Choose a topic).

A

The topic needs to be open enough to have multiple choice and literature available but specific enough not to have too much, e.g., gender is too broad, but gender in criminal justice is specific enough.

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27
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Review the literature).

A

We use the key themes of our topic gender and criminal justice. If there are too many results, we need to be more precise; if not enough, we need to be less precise. The objective is to know the state of knowledge from the topic.

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28
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Formulate the problem).

A

What is known and what is unknown from the topic? What are the gaps in the literature? e.g., the Mental health of women in the criminal justice system might not have enough research. Therefore, you might want to know more.

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29
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Develop the research question).

A

e.g. How does mental health change in the criminal justice system depending on gender?

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30
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Gather the data).

A

You need to specify the specific tools you are going to use, such as questionnaires, specific needs regarding health services, and questionnaires about criminality. Normally, the questionnaire should have more open questions.

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31
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Choose and organize the research design).

A

Once you have a research question, you want to choose what type of research you want, quantitative or qualitative methods.

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32
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Analyse the data).

A

Use statistical tests

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33
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Interpret the data).

A

You need to interpret the multiple data, explain what the results mean, and what the results are.

34
Q

Explain this step to undertake research from the ninth (Communicate the findings).

A

Generally, people take part in conferences and publish in academic journals. They also have talks with people involved in the specific themes.

35
Q

What are the two main sources of bias and limitations in science?

A

Researcher biases

Institutions and organizations biaises

36
Q

Name two types of researcher biases

A

-Personal values, perceptions, preconceptions
-Past experiences, culture, status

Anyone can conduct sensitive research, but there is a need to manage the impact and the importance of knowing our own biases.

37
Q

Name three types of institutions and organizations’ biases.

A

-Funding
-Publication bias
-Conflicts of interest

If a CEO pays someone to do research on his company, the research might be biased because the funds are coming from this company.

38
Q

Explain Milgram’s shock experiment relating to ethics.

A

Milgram wanted to know why Germans were “willing” to exterminate millions of people during WWII.

The main critique of the experiment is that people were conflicted between stopping and continuing to inflict shocks, which created an immense amount of stress for the participants. Furthermore, the participants were not listened to when they asked to stop. Also, the participants were told that they did not have a choice to continue.

39
Q

Name the 4 important ethical considerations and explain them.

A
  1. Voluntary and ongoing consent: consent can be taken away at any time and must be respected. Participants must have sufficient knowledge of the protocol and on the nature of the research. They must be aware of the risks and potential effects on them. Also, they must be warned about how long the study tasks and triggering subjects such as sexual assault.
  2. Maximize benefits: The benefits must always outweigh the risks.
  3. Minimize harms: Physical and psychological risks must be lowered as much as possible, and if the risks are too high, then the study must not be done.
  4. Justice: No participants should be systematically harmed or have more advantages than other participants. Furthermore, all types of groups should be included in the research.
40
Q

What are the aims of the Institutional Review Board (IRB), and how do they work?

A

Aims to ensure that the rights and welfare of research participants are protected.

They work with an ethics committee where they are interdisciplinary experts.

Every research must go to the IRB in order to do their research, and the researchers must provide a detailed research proposal with the following information: target population, data collection tools and questions asked, risks and benefits of the research, and predicted results. In the end, the IRB will provide suggestions on how to have the best ethics in the project.

41
Q

What are the three overarching principles guiding ethics?

A
  1. Respect for the persons (respect autonomy)
  2. Concern for welfare (quality of life)
  3. Justice (equity)
42
Q

Explain this principle from the three overarching principles (Respect for persons).

A

-Informed and ongoing consent: Sufficient information to make an informed decision. Achieve with multiple methods like a consent form that is explained to the participants and signed by them and the researchers.

-Voluntary participation and right to withdraw: Participants must not be forced, influenced, or manipulated to participate. Furthermore, incentives should not be high enough to influence the participant eg: 20$ is ok but not 200$. Also, during the study, Withrow should never have consequences for the participant.

-Respect for vulnerable people:
Having a third party for people who can’t have enough judgment to give consent is obligatory. e.g. children or mentally disabled people. Furthermore, it is necessary to adapt the language used in the consent form and verbally depending on the target population. e.g. we do not explain the same way to a child and to a doctor who is specialized in the field.
Adapted language

43
Q

Explain this principle from the three overarching principles (Concern for welfare).

A
  1. Fairness and equity in research participation

-Research should be inclusive:
Fair share of research benefits
Exclusion may lead to harm

Everyone should be represented unless for very specific reasons. So, gender, sexual identity, culture, ethnicity, ability/disability. Also, an effort should be put into having diversity in the study, so multiple recruitment strategies should be used.

  1. Confidentiality, privacy and security

-Protect research participants and data

-“ The ethical duty of confidentiality refers to the obligation of an individual or organization to safeguard entrusted information.”

-“Privacy refers to an individual’s right to be free from intrusion or interference by others.”

So, all of the data should be secured and locked. Furthermore, confidentiality should always be respected. Participant should be given a code, and all of their data should be associated with the code and not the name. Only a few people in the research team should be allowed access to raw data.

44
Q

Explain this principle from the three overarching principles (Justice).

A

-Harms, risks and benefits:
Prevent risks and harms
Minimal risk

-Maximize benefits:
For individuals, society and science

-Benefits must be greater than harms and risks

45
Q

What are the ethics in scientific communication?

A

-Data integrity:
You can not fabricate data or change the answers of the participants.

-Honest interpretations:
You need to be honest about the conclusion you can and can’t make about your research and the data collected.

-Respect of privacy and confidentiality:
Anonymous and coded data
No identifiable information

46
Q

What is the Tri-Council Policy Statment?

A

Ethical Conduct for Research Involving humans in Canada (TCPS-2, 2022)

47
Q

What is the Nuremberg code, Belmont Report?

A

The first code of conduct for ethical principles

48
Q

What are the philosophical assumptions of Quantitative approaches? (Ontology, Epistemology, Paradigm)

A

Ontology: There is one reality, and a single truth exists. These truths or realities can be known, discovered, and uncovered.

Epistemology: This single reality can be studied empirically.
It can also be measured and quantified using appropriate data collection tools, and importantly, researchers assume that this single reality can be known objectively.

Paradigm: Positivism
Assume that there is an objective reality that exists independently from the researcher’s and social actors’ perception. Hence, reality can be known objectively and is not influenced by the researcher who investigates this reality.

49
Q

What are the aims and objectives of Quantitative approaches?

A

-Test theories: Test hypothèses
So, one objective of those approaches is to test, validate and adjust theories. Most of the time researchers will identify theories from the literature and use them to guide a new research. This often leads to the development of hypotheses that we want to test.

-Explain and predict relationships between variables:
Understand causal relationships
Identify correlational relationships

To do so, these approaches will identify an independent variable which can be controlled or manipulated, and the research will look at the effect of this independent variable on outcome variables, which are known as dependent variables. We may either be interested in causal relationships, so specifically, what is the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, or how does one event lead to another event?

-Describe a population:
So descriptive data can be used to gather information about the age of our participants and the prevalence of persons with specific characteristics, for example.

50
Q

What is the research protocol for Quantitative approaches?

A

-Deductive (top-down process): Identification of a theory, then applying theory to the phenomenon you want to study, then developing the hypothesis that emerges from the theory, testing the hypothesis by gathering and analyzing data, then the results will tell if the hypothesis is confirmed or not.

You start by reading the literature on a given topic, reading and understanding that there is relevance to this topic, developing your hypothesis, selecting data collection tools, and developing an analytical plan. All of this will be developed prior to conducting the research.

-Linear: It goes from the first to the last step in a linear and orderly manner.

The research protocol is entirely developed before this study is conducted, and once this study is initiated, you cannot go back to previous research steps.

-Inflexible: The protocol needs to be exactly the same for each participant, and regardless of the incoming results, you cannot change the protocol.

51
Q

How is the sampling in Quantitative approaches?

A

-Large sample sizes: Want to be able to generalize data to as many persons as possible.

-Random sampling:
Unbiaised: If we consider that people have equal chances of taking part in the research, then we assume that the research results are not influenced or biased by individuals or contextual factors.

Representative: In random sampling, you do not target specific persons and each individual from the population in which you are interested should have equal chances of being invited to take part in your study.

52
Q

How is the data collected and analyzed in Quantitative approaches?

A

Data collection

-Quantitative measures:
Standardized and validated measurement tools often questionnaires with multiple-choice questions. But we should not develop our own questions randomly because we want them to be objective and generalizable and need to be standardized, pre-tested, and validated.
You need to select data collection tools from the literature that have been validated to measure the variables that you want to measure because you want to be able to compare your data with previous data.

-Standardized protocol for all participants: You need to make sure that you administer the data collection tools exactly the same way for all participants.
So, the interventions, the questions, and even the words you say to the participants need to be identical for everyone.
Things need to be done in the same order, and everyone needs to complete the same questionnaires.

Data analysis

-Global analyses and interpretations: All of the results will be combined and will end up being represented by a few numbers.
These allow for a global interpretation of the results and will consider the global experience of your sample rather than specific, individualized or isolated experiences.

53
Q

What are the expected results in Quantitative approaches?

A

-Explain and understand relationships between variables: You may be able to understand a relationship better or to understand the cause and effect of specific events.

-Generalization of the results:
To the target population
To similar populations
To similar social contexts

e.g. For example, if I study the healthcare access for people who are Homeless and who use substances in a quantitative manner, I may be able to generalize my results to a population of precariously housed people with concomitant mental health issues.

54
Q

What are the philosophical assumptions of Qualitative approaches? (Ontology, Epistemology, Paradigm)

A

Ontology: Multiple realities exist; realities are subjective, and realities are interpreted by the social actors who experience them.

Epistemology: Realities can be studied by investigating the perspectives of the social actors that actually lives it.

Paradigms: Interpretivism and Social constructionism
There are multiple subjective realities which existence and interpretation depend on the perspective of social actors.

55
Q

What are the aims and objectives of Qualitative approaches?

A

-Explore a new or complex phenomenon

-In-depth understanding of a phenomenon:
Explore and understand a phenomenon as it occurs in its natural context.

From the perspective of the social actors

56
Q

What is the research protocol for Qualitative approaches?

A

-Inductive (bottom-up process)
Or a mix of inductive and deductive process
Inductive: The research protocol will not be entirely developed prior to conducting the research. A researcher begins by collecting data that is relevant to the topic of interest. Once a substantial amount of data has been collected, the researcher will take a step back to look at the overall data to get a global perspective. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the data, emerging teams, and unexpected results. The researcher may also adapt the data collection tools or the way to analyze the data.

Mix: Allows to understand specifically planned teams, all while staying open to the other potentially emerging themes. A researcher could use a deductive approach to identify prior to conducting the research some important themes that are associated with the research process. For example, if we already know that music contributes to emotional regulation, then we may already plan to ask questions about how participants use music to regulate negative emotions.
Adding to this the inductive approach would mean that we stay open to new emerging information if it arises during the data collection period, we will adapt our tools to deepen this information.

-Dynamic: This means that the protocol can change to a certain limit as you discover new information.

-Flexible

57
Q

How is the sampling in Qualitative approaches?

A

-Small sample sizes: 20 to 50 participants because we want to deeply understand the experience of people and not to generalize.

-Purposeful sampling:
Careful selection of the research participants
We want to recruit participants who actually lived the phenomenon in which we are interested because they will likely be able to provide rich and in-depth information about what we want to explore or understand.

58
Q

How is the data collected and analyzed in Qualitative approaches?

A

Data collection

-Qualitative data collection tools:
Open and flexible
Often asking open-ended questions and the researcher will spontaneously add specific questions based on the discourse of the participant.

-Research protocol may evolve:
Minor changes and adaptations from a participant to another

So you will need to cover the global teams with the entire sample, but some specific questions may not all be the same for each participant or they may not be asked in the same order for everyone.

Data analysis

-Consider individual experiences
Regarding the data analysis, you will not be able to conduct statistical analysis because you may not ask the same questions to the entire sample. As a result, we will analyze participants on words and we will try to summarize their own words and classify them in representative categories.

59
Q

What are the expected results in Qualitative approaches?

A

-In-depth understanding of a phenomenon:
In its natural context
From the perspective of particular individuals and groups
While accounting for social contexts

60
Q

Which approach is the most known and used the most in research?

A

Quantitative approaches

61
Q

What are the aims and objectives of Mixed approaches?

A

-Combine quantitative and qualitative research approaches

-Take advantage of the strengths of each approach

-Explore, understand and explain multiple facets of a complex phenomenon

-Reinforce the research results

62
Q

What are the philosophical assumptions of Mixed approaches? (Ontology, Epistemology, Paradigm)

A

For all of those the reserchers could send everywhere between qualitative and quantitative.

Ontology: Middle between quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Epistemology: Between quantitative and qualitative

Paradigm: Between positivism, social constructivism and interpretive

It recognizes the researcher’s values and the role they play in interpreting the results.

63
Q

What is the research protocol of Mixed approaches?

A

-Different ways of conducting mixed studies:

Sequential:
Aims to explain a set of results

The researcher tried to explain the result emerging from the use of the first method by using a second method of data collection.
So, though there are multiple sources of data collection, The data collection methods are conducted only one at a time.

Concomitant:
Fully analyze a phenomenon

The researchers use quantitative and qualitative data and incorporate them equally in the interpretation of their results to provide a complete analysis of the phenomenon. So, the data collection methods are conducted simultaneously.

64
Q

What is the Sequential explanatory design of the mixed approaches?

A

Quanti data collection
Quanti data analysis
Quali data collection
Quali data analysis
Data interpretation

For example, quantitative data may reveal that young adults who are part of youth protection services are more at risk of experiencing homelessness in young adults compared to those who did not receive initial services. However, this information does not tell you why it is this way. So you may want to know more about the reasons that underline this fact. So, during your analysis, you will target specific information that you wish to know more about and that you want to explain or better understand, and this will guide the second phase of the study to the qualitative part.

65
Q

What is the Sequential exploratory design of the mixed approaches?

A

Quali data collection
Quali data analysis
Quanti data collection
Quanti data analysis
Data interpretation

To improve a theory to develop new and valid data collection tools and to explore and identify relationships with events.

We start by developing an open exploratory research question about a complex phenomenon. then show the qualitative data and analyze them. The results of the qualitative data are then used to judge the development of the quantitative state. The qualitative results might have revealed novel information about a phenomenon.
Or you may want to test the relationships between newly identified variables, and this could insert concrete new findings or reinforce a theory.

66
Q

What is the Concomitant design of the mixed approaches?

A

Quanti and Quali at the same time, This means that the quantitative and the qualitative data do not influence each other.

67
Q

What is the sampling in Mixed approaches?

A

-Quantitative:
Large sample sizes
Random sampling
Representative
Unbiaised

-Qualitative:
Small sample sizes
Purposeful sampling
Selection of research participants

68
Q

How the data is collected in Mixed approaches

A

-Quantitative:
Quantitative measures
Standardized and validated measurement tools
Standardized protocol

-Qualitative:
Qualitative data collection tools
Open and flexible
Minor changes are allowed

69
Q

How is the data analyzed in Mixed approaches?

A

-Quantitative:
Global analyses
Statistical techniques

-Qualitative:
Consider individual experiences
Thematic analyses

70
Q

What are the expected results in Mixed approaches?

A

-Sequential designs:
Explain and understand a complex phenomenon
Explain and understand a set of results

-Concomitant designs:
Fully understand a phenomenon
Reinforce the strength of the data
Identify points of convergence and divergence that arise from using different research approaches

71
Q

What are the philosophical assumptions of Participatory approaches? (ontology, epistemology, paradigms)

A

-Ontology:
Multiple realities

-Epistemology:
Knowledge is interpreted by social actors

-Paradigms:
Social constructionism

Assume that there are multiple subjective realities which exist in an interpretation different on the perspective of social actors, but also on the perspective of the researcher. Ultimately, realities can be explored and interpreted under research knowledge that emerged from part of inventory approaches is ensnared by the participants who take part in the study but also by the researcher who conducts the study.

72
Q

What are the aims and objectives of Participatory approaches?

A

-Involve key stakeholders in research:

-Consider the perspective of those concerned by the research topic: Taking their perspective into account in the data collection is not sufficient to make it a participatory research. They really need to be involved in the conception and the digging of at least sufficient research steps.

-Develop and adapt the research process to the needs and realities of the stakeholders:
stakeholders can be the person who experiences the phenomenon of interest, It can be intervening person, an entertaining person or anyone involved with their experience of the phenomenon.

73
Q

What is the research protocol of Participatory approaches?

A

-Co-developed

-Adaptive

-Inclusive

You need to make a clear demonstration of how those perspectives will contribute to improving their research protocols, including shared data collection tools, recruitment strategies, data analysis and communication and research results. You need to ensure that the key stakeholders are able to participate in the development of their research, considering that they are not researchers and probably have other occupations in their real life; the participatory approaches also aim to adapt the research process to the needs and the reality of those key stakeholders.

74
Q

What is the sampling method in Participatory approaches?

A

-Carefully selected key stakeholders:
Persons with lived experiences of an issue
Persons who have a decisional power over an issue
Available and interested

75
Q

How are the data collected and analyzed in Participatory approaches?

A

Data collection

-Involve participants in the data collection:
Open, flexible, inclusive and adapted
Nature of data can be qualitative, visual, or artistic

-Research protocol may evolve:
Adapted to the needs of the participants
Promote participation

Data analysis

-Consider individual and unique experiences:

76
Q

What are the expected results in Participatory approaches?

A

-In-depth understanding of a phenomenon:
In its natural context

-Develop a new perspective by getting closer to a social issue:

-Community, societal and policy changes:

77
Q

What are the avantages or Participatory approaches?

A

-Ensure the use of adapted methods
-Ensure the development of adapted interventions
-Skills development
-Facilitate the knowledge translation into action
-Values the experience of social actors

78
Q

What are disadvantages of Participatory approaches?

A

-Long and intensive process
-Need for training
-Difficult to gather important social actors
-Risks of instrumentalization
-Power imbalances

79
Q

What approaches form the 4 that we have seen is less known?

A

Participatory approaches

80
Q

In sequential mixed approaches
what is the meaning of the capital letters in the following?

QUANTI data collection QUANTi data analysis quali data collection quali data analysis

A

It means that the approche that is mostly used is Quantitiative

Soc. Criminal justice system (6 decks)

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