SOC110 Flashcards
final
What is the target population?
A cluster of people you are the most interested in.
It needs to be chosen scientifically
If too broad it will be difficult to have a representative sampling, and if too specific it will be difficult to find enough participants
What is the accessible population?
The accessible population is the group that a researcher can actually measure
Accessibility depends on the context of the research and the researcher’s resources; there is always a group inside the target pop. that is more accessible
Even in the accessible pop. not everyone will accept to participate to the study.
What is a sample?
A subset of the accessible pop.
The individuals who actually take part in research
Group from whom we gather data
*Sometimes, the subgroup does not benefit from the research results
In the eligible sample, what are inclusion criteria?
Guidelines about who can participate
- It ensures coherence of the sample with the research topic
-scientifically supported
In the eligible sample, what are the exclusion criteria?
Guidelines about who cannot participate
-ethical considerations
-reduce the gathering of unrelevant data
Give an example of inclusion and exclusion criteria with research about the effects of music on homeless people who have a substance abuse problem
Inclusion:
-experience problematic substance use
-experience homelessness
-Having been exposed to music at least once a week in the last 12 months
Exclusion:
-Experience psychotic, non-stable symptoms
-State of intoxication at the moment of research interview
-Experience music anhedonia
What can you do to make sure that people respect your eligibility criteria?
You can develop an eligibility questionnaire or use a questionnaire that was already done previously for things that are often studied, like substance use.
What is sampling?
Sampling is the process of selecting observations that will be analyzed for research purposes
sampling is the strategy to select the right sample and unit of observation. In human sciences it is often individuals or groups of individuals
sampling is about how you will reach out the accessible pop and how will you form the sample
It can be probabilistic or non-probabilistic
What are the characteristics of probabilistic sampling techniques?
Representativity: resembles the target pop. eg: a phenomenon is experienced by 70% women and 30% men, then you will have those numbers in the study
Generalizability: Results apply to the target pop. eg: rare things that are not experience by the target pop. should not be overseen in the sample.
Radom selection: Equal chances of being invited to take part in a study. eg: more coherent with quantitative study
Name the 4 probabilistic sampling techniques and exlpain them briefly
simple radom : Researcher randomly selects elements from sampling frame
systematic : researcher selects every xth element from sampling frame
stratified: Researcher creates subgroups then randomly select elements from each group
cluster: Researcher randomly selects clusters then randomly selects elements from selected clusters
Explain this probabilistic sampling technique: Systematic sampling
- Develop a sampling frame: list all members of the accessible pop.
- Randomly select individuals: using a systematic strategy. Every Xth person on the list. So, it is the same as the simple random technique, but you have an interval between every participants. So, you start by randomly choosing the starting point and then every “x” number for every participant. eg: you need 15 participants from the 100, so every 6 participants you take that person
comment: good for small scale research
Explain this probabilistic sampling technique: Simple random sample
- Develop a sampling frame: list all members of the accessible pop.
- Number potential participants
- Randomly select individuals: random number table, so you randomly select the first number and you go on
Limitation: Difficult to apply because it requires you to know every possible participant, so it it not feasible for big sample but it can be achieve with a smaller sample eg: Bishops teacher
comment: this technique is simple to understand, but hard to do. So it is rare to see it in research
Explain this probabilistic sampling technique: Stratefied sampling
- Divide the accessible pop in subgroups
- Draw a sample for each subgroup: either by random sample strategy or by systematic sampling strategy
comment: It is a good strategy if you want people with some characteristics represented eg: separate men, women, non-binary, and agender. This technique makes sure that you have minorities in your research, which can not always be the case in random strategies
Explain this probabilistic sampling technique: Cluster sampling
- Divide the accessible pop in subgroups: subgroups have the same characteristics like living in Sherbrooke
- Select random subgroups
- Sample all members of the selected subgroups
Comment: This technique is useful when you do not have access to all the information about the potential pop.
The sample might be heterogenous since participants might be more different from one another.
This technique is use for larger pop.
What are the strengths and limitations of probabilistic sampling techniques?
Strengths:
-Representative samples
-Generalizability of the research results
-Less likely to be biased
Limitations:
-Resources needed may limit its feasibility (time, costs)
-Requires a high level of skill and experience, so it is best accomplished by an experienced research team
-May not represent minority groups
What are the characteristics of non-probabilistic sampling techniques?
Used to…
-Describe, explore or examine small groups
-Explore a phenomenon that is unknown/misunderstood
-Understand the perspective of particular individuals
-Develop an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon
Comment:
-The sampling is not based on statistical techniques
-mostly used in qualitative techniques
-you recruit people by identifying how you can reach people
-Made to recruit people with a very specific “condition” that would be difficult to find in the general pop.
Name the 4 non-probabilistic sampling techniques
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Convenience sampling
Snowball
Explain this non-probabilistic sampling technique: Purposive sampling
- Identify the perspectives sought regarding the topic of interest: and what is the angle that you want to talk about the topic
- Identify diversification criteria: e.g., mental health problems, find people who were hospitalized in mental health facilities or hospitals, age range, gender, etc.; once you develop different characteristics, you need to find people.
- Seek individuals who respect those criteria and who can discuss these perspectives
Comment: this technique helps have a diverse perspective regarding the topic of interest
Explain this non-probabilistic sampling technique: Snowball sampling
Rely on initial participants to identify potential participants
Comments :
Useful to study stigmatized, hard to reach and socially excluded groups
Useful to reach groups unfamiliar to the researcher or new researcher
Explain this non-probabilistic sampling technique: Quota sampling
- Identify categories important to the study: eg: sex or gender
- Subgroups are created based on each category: eg: gender = subgroups of men, women and non-binary
- Select individuals from each subgroup
Comment:
- the number of participants that we want from each subgroup is called quota
-Selection of participants is not random and it is not representative of the general pop.
What can influence the selection of research participants? Sampling biaises
Access to invitation to take part in research: the sample will be influence by where and who can see the study eg: where is the poster, who will be able to reach the poster, if it is by internet older people might not be able to reach it
Recruitment strategies: Participants might have similar interests and similar ways of thinking
Personal interest from the participants in a research topic: often people who participate are truly interested and might taint the results
What are the strengths and limitations of non-probabilistic techniques?
Strengths:
-Fast and simple: it can be used by newer researcher
-Inexpensive
-Targets people with specific experience: which ensures that the participants have something to say about the research
Limitations:
-More at risk of sampling biaises
-Lack of representativity with the target population: people do not have the same chances to be part of the study which makes it possible that it is not generalizable to the general population
-Results cannot be generalized to the target population
Comment: these techniques are more used in qualitative research
Explain this non-probabilistic sampling technique: Convenience sampling (quantitative and qualitative)
Select individuals who are easily accessible: physical proximity, availability of the researcher, available resources
Comment: journalists use this strategy.
Useful in exploratory research: it takes less time to prepare and it is always a feasible strategy
What is a Survey?
The most use data collection tool
Quantitative method and sometimes qualitative
It has predetermined questions: -that are developed in advance with predetermined answers
-close-ended questions
-printed or online, so the survey can be done in person or online
Self-reported information: the participants answer the questions without the researcher’s interference.
What are the objectives of surveys?
Large amounts of data
Gather data quickly
Get details about a large population
To describe the characteristics of a population or a phenomenon: eg: the proportion and prevalence of people concerned with the cost of living
To investigate the opinions and behaviours of a population: eg: journalists have a new subject so they do surveys to have fast answers. It also helps characterize the population by having questions about sex, gender, age, etc.
Useful when you have limited resources
What are the differences and a similarity between a survey and a questionnaire?
Survey:
-collect data about a population
-Research method process
-Statistical analyses
-Draw conclusions
-Takes time to answer
Questionnaire:
-Collest data about one person
-Tool to gather information
-No formal analyses
-Will not answer generalizations about the population
-Only an instrument used to gather some information eg: can use it so know if participants have the prerequired necessities to be part of the research
-Can be quickly administered
Both have pre-determined questions
How can a survey be administered?
Self-administered:
-Hard copy:
-Online: Sometimes it is hard to see every participant; therefore, having the possibility to do it online is a great help. Also, the data can be gathered online through an online platform. However, having people take the time during the day to do it can be hard.
Administered by the researcher:
-by the form of an interview, so the researcher read questions and voice options.
What are the strengths of Surveys?
Method
-Gather lots of information in short amounts of time
-Reaches large population: you can do it online, so it is easier to reach diverse profiles
-Cost-effective: also less time consuming
-Reliable and consistent: ensures that the method is standard and that the questions are asked in the same manners
-Versatile: can adapt to many social contexts
Sample
-Representative
-Generalizable results that help draw conclusions about a larger population
What are the limitations of Surveys?
-Data collection rests on a single instrument: if there is an issue with a question you cannot go back, it also forces participants to choose between predetermined answers which might not represent the POV
-Validity of the results: fails to capture the true essence of the participants or they don’t understand the question which is going to affect the results.
-Misinterpretation of the questions: if the questions were interpreted differently it might not be generalizable data
-Risks of missing data
Participants
-Social desirability: tendency to answer questions to make themselves look good, some might lie or exaggerate certain things
-Biais in the persons who choose to participate
Name the different types of Surveys
-Cross-sectional surveys
-longitudinal surveys: trend, panel, cohort
-Retrospective surveys
What are retrospective surveys?
Administered only once, but ask participants about a series of past events
What are cross-sectional surveys?
Administered once
At a particular point in time: which gives a picture of a certain phenomenon at a certain point in time
Does not consider evolution in phenomena and population:
-gives a stagnant picture
-difficult to generalize
-difficult to know if the results apply long after the assessment
What are longitudinal surveys
Repeated observations: eg. to know what are the substance use over time and the frequency
Assessment over long period of time: from multiple months to years
Follow the same individuals over time:
-Risk of attrition: might lose participants over time. Generally, 70 to 80% must remain in the study for it to be accurate. Depending on the participants it might be hard to keep them. We accept certain attrition rates like for homeless participants they are easily “lost”
In longitudinal surveys, what are trend surveys?
Evolution and changes over time
-opinion
-characteristics
-behaviours
Administer the same questions at different moments:
-the interest are trends, not specific groups
-Respondants are not necessarily the same on each occasion: as long as the participants are representative of the general population, it does not matter
In longitudinal surveys, what are cohort surveys?
Track change over time: need to use the same question over time
Regularly survey people of the same category of interest
-But not necessarily the sample individuals: not necessarily the same participants but they need to have a particular characteristic eg. physical and mental health of people born in 2003
In longitudinal surveys, what are panel surveys?
An audience is surveyed multiple times: each set of surveys is called a wave
-track changes in behaviours, attitudes, thoughts, etc.: Therefore, they need to have very similar questions in the different waves
-relationships between variables: can help identify relationships between natural and individual variables
The same persons participate in each assessment:
-difficult and costly: You need to be aware of each participant’s information. High risk of attrition
-requires lots of resources
How can you design effective survey questions?
Define the goal and purpose of the survey
Get a clear idea of what you want to learn
Identify relevant questions:
-begin with a brainstorm of potential questions
-work with a team
-organize the potential questions: eg. you can do it by themes so you can notice if you are lacking some questions or if you have similar ones
Comment:
-Should never ask the most sensible question in the beginning
-there are no clear-cut manner to answer questions, but it should be done intelligently so it flows
-the length of the survey should be linked with the topic
-all questions should be important and not redundant
What are the characteristics of good survey questions?
Clear and unambiguous: only one idea per question and it should not include multiple point
Appropriate wording: depending on the population, the question should be adapted on their capacity to understand them
Minimize biais: we want to avoid questions that would give the impression that their is a right and wrong answer
-As neutral as possible
-Want to avoid social desirability
Obtain feedback/pre-test the questions: this is a normal process to develop the best question
What are the characteristics of good response options?
Generally one possible answer
Generally close-ended: the participants should not creat their own answer
-mutually exclusive: an idea can not be present in two choice eg. What is your age 13-15, 16-18 not 13-15, 14-20
Example:
-yes /no questions
-likert scales
-level of agreement
What are experiments?
Quantitative data collection methods
Test hypotheses in controlled conditions:
-laboratory design for a certain type of research eg. music, soundproofing, good headphones
-free from disruption and biais from outside
-provide the same conditions for each participant
-More used in psychology
What are the goals of an experiment?
Determine causal relationships between variables
Explain relationships between variables
What are the characteristics of experimental research?
Control over variables: strict control over the variable that we study. It is important to identify the variables. Manipulations are the same for each participant
Control over environment: it must be the same for each participant. eg. conducting a study in a private and calm space, if those are not possible you need to make sure that the participants are exposed to the same conditions
Control over participants: have clear eligibility criteria to make sure that we have a homogenous group.
-random assignment
Explain the independent variable in an experiment
Independant variable: The one we want to study
-factor: also called independent variable, can have more than one but not too many
-level value of an independent variable: eg. if you look at the effect of relaxing and exciting background music. independent variable is the background music, but it has two levels relaxing and exciting
Explain the dependant variables in an experiment
Outcome: also called dependant variable, this one gives us the results using data collection tools
Explain the confounding variables in an experiment
The variable that is not of interest, it is not measured but might influence the causal relationships that we are looking at. We try to eliminate them as much as possible. eg. you are doing an experience on music, but one of your participants suffers from a lack of enjoyment from music. This can make you think that the independent variable is not good, but actually, it is just the conditions
What are three important variables in experiments and explain them?
Independant (Factor)
Dependant (Outcome)
Confounding
What is the difference between the experimental and control groups in experiments?
Experimental group:
-Exposed to the stimulus
-Test group
Control group:
-Is not exposed to the stimulus
-Meant to be a point of comparison: it allows the researcher to have a conclusion.
Both groups are tested the same way
What are the aims of random assignment in experiments?
*Each participant as equal chance of being assigned to each group
Pre-test equivalence of the groups
Control over individual variables
*Each participant as equal chance of being assigned to each group. Groups should be similar and the only difference should be the presence or absence of stimulus. One way to do it is by assigning numbers to participants and even numbers are the control and odd numbers are doing the experiment
it is never possible to control every variable but by doing random assignment it reduces it
What are the two kinds of experiments?
Within-subjects/within group and between-subjects/between group
What are the characteristics of Within-subjects/within-group design in experimental studies?
Measure changes over time
Measure the effect of an intervention
The same participants are involved in repeated testing
Conditions: Instead of having an experimental and a control group, you will have the same group doing both
What are the strengths and limitations of Within-subjects/within-group design in experimental studies?
Strengths:
-smaller sample
-controls for individual differences
-statistically powerful likelihood that we find an effect on the independent variable
Limitations:
-practice effects: occurs when a participants becomes more and more familiar with the test and becomes better and better on each test, which is a biais
-Order effect: participants become tired after some time in the experiment, so they did better at first but then became tired and do less good
-Effects of time: this happens when you do research over a few years. eg. Participants may have experienced traumatic events and answered differently. also, participants age, so they might decide to stop the experiment (risk of attrition)
What are the characteristics of between-subjects/between-group designs in experimental studies?
More than one group of participants
Different groups take part in different experiments:
-random assignment: you need to make sure that the two groups are similar otherwise you won’t be able to compare
Outcomes of the different groups are compared (because they are from different participants)
Groups
-experimental
-control: a common control group in music is having people listen to white noise. Sometimes it is best to have the participants to some kind of activity instead of making them do nothing
What are the strengths and limitations of between-subjects/between-group designs in experimental studies?
Strengths:
-Reduces carryover effects (practice effects, time effects, etc.): since they are tested only once, they won’t have participants who will perform best from one test to the other
-Limits fatigue effect: since participants are only testing in one group
-Shorter duration of the study
Limitations
-Larger sample size: it means that you need lots of participants to have high statistical power. Also more costly if they are lots of participants
-Uncontrolled individual differences: if the group is heterogeneous, it is hard to have a good conclusion. Therefore, you need more people to counter that.
Identify the independent and the dependent variables in the next example of an experiment
A study aims to examine the effect of music-based intervention on substance management
Independent: Music intervention
Dependent: Substance use management
Identify the levels of independent variables in the next example of an experiment
A study aims to examine the effect of music-based intervention on substance management
Levels of independent variables: three levels
-music listening
-music practice
-music therapy
Identify a possible between-subjects and within-subject experiment in the next example of an experiment
A study aims to examine the effect of music-based intervention on substance management
Between-subject:
-experimental: a group of people with a substance use disorder who do music intervention, and a group who listens to music
-control: group with substance use management
each group test for 6 weeks
Within-subject:
Each participant would have to do the music listening for 6 weeks, then do music practice for 6 weeks (this could take several months)
What are the characteristics of quasi-experimental research?
Test causal relationships between variables
No random assignment of participants
Control group is not mandatory
Field experiments: wants to look at causal relationships occurs in real life settings, therefore lacks some control of variable. For this one there is no possibility of random assignment and of control group
Name the two quasi-experimental research and explain them
One-group posttest-only:
-Dependant variable measured after the treatment
-No comparison group
One group Pretest-posttest
-A single group performs an experiment and the dependent variable is measured before and after the experiment
-effects of special events, maturation, practice effects
What are the characteristics of non-experimental research?
Does not manipulate an independent variable
No radom assigment of participants
Useful when…
-Can’t manipulate the independent variables
-Explore non-causal relationships eg. surveys, correlational studies
What are correlational research?
Non-experimental research method
Measures the relationships between variables
Determines the direction and the strengths of the association between variables
Does not seek to have the control over a variable
Useful when…
-Not looking for causal relationships: want to understand how they are related and how they vary together
-Exploring unknown or potential relationships: things that have not been studied or that remains unexplored like the individual effect of the covid pandemic on the mental health of kindergartners
-Unable to manipulate the independent variable: either because it is not possible or ethical. eg. frequency of canais use and the effect on the psycho. It is not ethical to ask people to take different doses of cannabis so we go to self-reported data
What are the things that correlational research allows to do?
Discover relationships between multiple variables
Develop theories
Develop hypothesis
Establish reliability and validity of measurement tools
What are the things that correlational research does not allow to do?
Infer causation: can’t know which variable causes the other or if two variables are caused together. eg. number of crime and ice cream goes up and down together but they are not associated. there are a third variable that is summer, in the summer the number of crime and ice cream goes up
Test hypotheses
Test theories
Explain why variables are associated: it can tell that there is a relationships but not why they are associated
What words should be used in correlational studies vs experiments? LOOK BACK
Effect vs Relationships
Correlational: use the word relationships because it examines the relationships between two variables and not looking at what variable is causing the other
eg: the aim of this study is to examine the relationship between substance abuse and mental health issues
Experiment: use the word effect and cause
eg: the aim of this study is to determine the effect of substance use on driving capacity
How can you recognize a correlational study?
Variables are not manipulated
Variables are not controlled: since they are already in the participants’ life, so we have less knowledge and control over the participants.
The relationship is bidirectional: the variables vary together and are at the same level, but it is not possible to know which one comes before the other
What are the variables selection in correlational research?
Natural variables
Can select many variables in the same study
Observable
Quantifiable and measurable: you need to be able to assess variables quantifiably with close-ended questions
How can you collect data in correlational research?
Survey –> questionnaires with close-ended questions/answeres –> statistical analyses
Observation (frequency of behaviours) –> quantified data (numbers) –> Statistical analyses
What are the potential results of correlational research?
Positive correlation
Negative correlation: eg. as you take alcohol, you take less and less good decisions
No correlation: eg. a change in a variable is not associated with a change in the other one. intelligence and height
How can you interpret correlational research?
You do it with Pearson’s Correlation coefficient (r) that goes from -1 to 1
(-)0.0 to 0.19 = No correlation
(-)0.2 to 0.39 = weak correlation
(-)0.4 to 0.59 = moderate correlation
(-)0.6 to 0.79 = strong correlation
(-)0.8 to 1 = very strong correlation
What are the outcomes of correlational research?
Existence of relationships between variables
Strength of the relationship between variables: Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient
Establish the direction of a relationship: positive or negative
What are the strengths of correlational research?
Simple and easy to develop
Easy to conduct and to gather data: questionnaires with close-ended questions
Can get large amounts of data quickly
Helps to identify the variables that are associated: which may guide future research
Easy to analyze and to interpret
What are the limitations of correlational research?
Can’t imply causation:
-bidirectional relationships vs linear: we only know that they vary together but not if one as effects over the other. Therefore it cannot be linear we also cannot know if they are caused by a third variable
Possibility of confounding variables
Linear vs dynamic relationships: lwe can only know if the graphic is linear but if it is dynamic. eg. health and physical activity are positively correlated but at some you can get injured if it is too much so it becomes negatively correlated
Limited range: they can change the results and limit the findings
What are Qualitative research designs
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Ground theory
Descriptive qualitative design
What are the aims of qualitative research approach? LOOK BACK
Explore and understand new/complex phenomenon: ones that cannot be easily measured either because they have too many variables or because too many people
Develop an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon: from the perspective of the social actors concerned with the research topic of interest
What are the aims of ethnography?
In-depth description and understanding of a group:
-ways of living
-understanding things from within
-how groups are living and their culture
-very detailed way to understand the phenomenon because of the of participants and of the researchers
-Researcher needs to learn things and experience the phenomenon they are studying themselves
How questions: Since the researcher spends so much time with the groups they are studying, they can understand how a phenomenon cam to be. eg. How does the geographic location influence Inus in Northerns Quebec
What does ethnography explore or seek to understand?
Activites and processes
Behaviours: Individuals and groups
Meanings: that are attributed to certain activities like schooling in colonized Canada vs Indigenous nations
Social interactions: eg. hierarchy
Group communication: eg. how the culture is transmitted
What does the researcher observe in ethnography research?
Anything that has to do with the research topic and the population of interest
-Environmental characteristics: sounds, impressions, housing, safety
-Observation of the target population: way of behaving, social relationships, emotions, conflicts, support system, gender roles
Participatory and non-participatory observation in ethnography research
Participant observation:
-be part of the group/community
-experience the phenomenon
*the researcher will perform daily activities of the research group
Non-participant observation:
-passive observation
-no interference of the researcher with participants
*In all cases, a researcher’s diary is important to remember every detail
What it ethnography and what are its field of research?
Research design
Constructionism paradigm: social interaction
Field of research:
-in context: in which the experience can only be taken into account the social context in which it occurs and with the subjective realities of each participant
-Natural environment: This is not conducted in a laboratory but in the participants’ environment, so researchers are going to the participants. They are also going to stay in their environment for a long period of time to truly understand the context, social norms, activities, and social problems.
-Observation of a phenomenon: the researcher asks participants about their environment and adds their observations
How does researchers choose a site for ethnography research?
Based on potential research questions: ethnography is highly inductive so the research questions are not always developed in advance
Based on research topic: need to find an environment that will permit researcher to study the topic
Exposure the the behaviours, attitudes, processes of interests
Accessible location: you need to chose a site that is realistic with the researchers and their teams, as well as the participants. you need to be accepted by the population otherwise they will not act normally
Respect the time that you have to conduct the research: you need time to conduct the study and for the population to get use to you
Distance and travelling: the researcher will try to live as close as possible to the site they are studying. Also having someone who knows the population helps the research team have more insite
Choosing a role in ethnography
The researcher might do observation and no interviews, so they will not have to introduce themselves, but if they do, they will have to choose a role
Overt Researcher:
-open about being a researcher can lead to:
–mistrust mostly by stigmatized group who do not trust institutions
–participants may behave differently: the researcher might need to be on the site for weeks or months before the population trust them
–avoid moral/ethical dilemmas: might be easier for the researcher to disclose the fact that they are doing a research
Covert Research
-Does not disclose the role of researcher
–develop relationships more rapidly : might have more information and get to experience the phenomenon they are studying
–risks of being uncovered: losing the trust of participants
When is ethnography relevant?
A phenomenon is unknown or understudied
The characteristics of a group are misunderstood
The target population is not easily accessible
It is flexible and open
What are the data collection strategies for ethnography
Observation and interviews
Why does the ethnographer use a research diary?
Field notes are used to record observations
Field notes constitute a database
*the notes can be sentences, words, drawings, codes
*they need to be frequently done
What are the different kinds of field notes?
Descriptive: simply describe what the researcher see, from the site too what people do, but no analysis of why people do what they do
Analytical: include the researcher’s impression. eg. reflect on gender norms, can also be used as the first step of the analysis.
methodological: ethnography is inductive, so it will evolve over time. What you want to look at, what you want to see, what questions you want to ask, why did you decide to look for this instead of this
Personal emotions, thoughts and experience: take notes about emotions in certain events, and personal biases about certain moment
*most field notes will be done by hand because they need to be achieved as spontaneously as possible
What are the two types of interviews in ethnography?
informal and formal
What are the characteristics of informal interviews?
Spontaneous: e.g. in participant observation, the researcher is doing a specific task with another person and during the task, the researcher asks questions. Those interviews are not planned and can be short or long. Most of the time, it is information that is not too personal since it can be done in front of other participants
Unstructured
Flexible
In the natural environment
What are the characteristics of formal interviews?
Planned: conducted during a specific time, it is the time to ask more personal questions since you are alone
Generally semi-structured
In private space
What is the data analysis process in ethnography interviews?
An ongoing process:
-starts during data collection (analytical notes)
-Iterative with data collection: go from data collection, to data analysis, then discover something new, so go back to data collection, etc.
Data analysis:
-Type, read and reflect about the notes: this takes many hours
-Code data using qualitative statistical software (Nvivo): categorize information into larger teams and data reduction (you reduce the number of pages that you are working with)
-Look for emerging themes
What are the outcomes of ethnography?
Obtain a holistic understanding of a group or culture:
-understand the challenges, the qualities and strengths of a particular group
-understand their way of living
-understand how to develop interventions that are adapted to their context and needs
Generate a new theory
What are the strengths of ethnography research?
Privileged access to real life situations
Uncover sensitive informations: because you were close to the population, they started to disclose more detailed and personal information
Study a phenomenon in its real social context
Uncover unconscious behaviours: participants are not always aware that you are watching them or they forget about them, so they start acting more natural
What are the limitations of ethnography?
Large amount of details: many hours to transcribe the notes and hundreds of pages
Small sample: not realistic to do it to a very large population because you will have less details about each participant
Very demanding for the researcher: requires to move to the research site and spend a long time there. You may develop strong feelings for the group so you are less objective. The researcher might feel indebted to the group and to have results since they welcomed you for a long time.
Heterogenous data sources
What are Semi-structured interviews?
Data collection technique:
-Inductive or mixed (inductive + deductive): deductive is when you develop clear guidelines about the topic, themes, and questions before the interview. inductive is when you have to ask follow-up questions during the interviews. Since it is a conversation, it might go places you did not anticipate. You want to use open-ended questions so people open up more about their experience. Combination of pre-determined themes/questions and emerging questions
Conversation between the researcher and participant:
-open-ended questions
Usually held face to face, individually
When are semi-structured interviews useful?
Studying a complex, unknown or misunderstood phenomenon
Need to gather very detailed, nuanced and in-depth information
Need to contain a contextualized understanding of a phenomenon
-understand the impact of a particular social context
Conducting a semi-structure interview: Before the interview
Develop an interview guide
-list of topics: need details because you want to go in-depth, so 3 to 6 topics at most
-List of potential open-ended questions: 10-15 peon-ended questions about 2 hours
-List of potential follow-up questions: eg.tell me more about this topic
-Pre-test the interview guide: practice with a colleague and do what you will do with the participants, then you can see if every question is useful and if the vocabulary is adapted. *you do not have to ask each questions to all the participants and you do not have to do them in the same order
-pratice
All questions and topics might not be covered in a single interview
Conducting a semi-structure interview: During the interview
Record the interview `
Perform active listening: if it is recorded you do not have to take as many notes. you need to make eye-contact, nod, hum, reformulate the answers, etc
Guide the interview from the discourse of the participant:
-Adapt the order of the questions/topics: sometimes a participant might move from a topic to another and therefore you need to adapt the order of questions so it makes sense with what they are doing
-Stay focused on the participant’s experience: sometimes they might explain the experience of friends and family, but you need to redirect them towards themselves
-Ask spontaneous follow-up questions
Be empathic and sensitive
Accept silence and breaks: you don’t want to overwhelm the participants. Silence help people think about how they want to answer. Breaks are important because interviews are hard emotionally and also it is important to let the participant withdraw if it is too though for them
Conducting a semi-structure interview: Immediately after the interview
Offer support: the researcher cannot take the role of the intervening person, but they need to make sure that the participants are ok. you can give them a list of resources, also debriefing after the interview about how they felt and if they want to add something
Debriefing
Ensure the well-being of the participant
How do you analyze semi-structured interviews
Often iterative to the data collection: as you collect the data you can type the interviews and start coding. It can help discover things that you might want to add to your next interview and correct the interview toward that subject
Analyze the interview transcriptions:
-Qualitative analysis software (Nvivo)
-Develop a coding grid: you may discover new emerging themes and then you may add new themes to you coding grid. you will generally find about 5 themes to help you answer your questions
-Inductive and deductive `
-Pre-determined and new emerging themes
-Categorize data by themes
-Outcome: identify and explain the themes that best answer your research question
What are focus group?
Qualititave data collection method conducted in groups instead of individually
A group comprised of individuals with certain characteristics who focu discussion on a given issue or topic
Group interview
When are focus group useful?
Gather in-depth knowledge (attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, opinions): you get to ear about the opinions of a specific group in the condition it is lived and in a social context
Gather knowledge about unknown/misunderstood topics
-When appropriate to discuss in group eg. you do not talk about sexual trauma
Collect data from marginalized population and minority groups: individually they might mistrust the university but in groups they feel empowered
When focus groups should be used?
Discuss processes and norms of a group
Have the opinion of a group on a topic
Consider the interactions between members of a group: sometimes, conversation might come in group and would not have individually
Understand what underlies their opinions and motivations
Develop and test research/ intervention / political material: new questionnaires, interventions or guidelines and the researcher want to test these tools with the population they were designed for, to know how to improve them
Complement other research methods: can be used by itself or to complete other research
When focus groups should not be used?
Conduct multiple interviews and save time
Debate contreversial topics: we want a safe space where you can discuss specific issues and accepts all realities
Discuss sensitive topics: not the place to talk about trauma
Get to a consensus: we want to understand the experience of each and accept them as they are. We do not want to change their minds
Interven in a group: we ant to stay in the role of the researcher and not be an intervening person
Test the knowledge of a group
Planning the focus group: particpants
purposive sampling
Group size 5-12 participants/group
-issues if groups are too small (not enough diversity) /too large (some people will not participate)
Combine different profiles/ populations relevant to the research topic: eg.homelessness want to have people from rural and urban area so you can know the experience in different region
Homogenous: make people more trusting and avoid debates and confrontations vs heterogenous where there are dynamics of power, fear or exclusion distrusts
-creat a comfortable space eg. if you study drugs and you want to interview drug user and police you might want to creat two groups
Possible to conduct multiple focus groups
Planning the focus group: time
Around 2 hours
Adapt to the participants so they can concentrate for that long
Planning the focus group: location/setting
easily accessible
Safer space: do it in community spaces
Organized discussions
Free from interference: having round tables
Planning the focus group: Questions
Develop an interview guide
5-6 questions: it is shorter so people have more time to answer
open-ended questions
follow up questions
questions should refer to the general experience
promote group dynamics and interactions should not target a particular participant and should make everyone want to speak about their experience
What is the role of the facilitator in focus groups?
Develop a relationship with participants
create a warm, wlecoming environment
ask questions
promote participation and interaction from all participants
manage interactions between participants: make sure that everyone talks
listen and learns: the group is in the position of experts and the facilitator only listen and welcomes the knowledge
pay attention to the verbal/non-verbal cues: are people conftarble or not with a particular question, if you see that people are not willing to go deeper you can change the subject and ask no-follow-up questions
address issues/conflicts: you want to resolve conflict, you might have to withdraw peolpe
What it the role of the observer in focus groups?
record the discussion
listen and observe the discussion
take notes:
-themes discussed
-interactions: really important for the data collection and data analysis, you note debates, who was more talking and less talking because at the end you might have more information about one particular type of people
-verbal/non-verbal language
time keeper: make sure that you have the time to cover all the topic in a timely manner
manage distractions
Focus groups: during the discussion tips to facilitate discussion
carefully place participants: the ones that talks the most by the side of the researcher and the ones that talk the less in front of the researcher
manage participation:
-too much vs too little participation: give none verbal cues to tell people that they are talking too much, and speak directly to the ones that are not talking enough
make sure that everyone os heard and respected `
if they don’t participate:
-find creating, engaging means of participation eg drawing, writing, art
then ask questions about these alternative productions
Focus groups analyses similarities and differences to other qualititative data collection
Similar:
-iterative data collection/analysis process
-transcribe discussion, code, identify themes
Different:
-Interactions between participants: Where there themes that were more interested with the topic, Is there debates or conflicts about certain questions/topics
-points of agreement/disagreement
-changes in opinions: as people discuss you want to note evolution and changes of opinions and how they occurs
-evolution of the discussion
Focus groups: ethical consideration
confidentiality in a group context:
-risks that participants divagate information and you want to promote participation but not pressure people
no pressure to participants:
-Ask follow-up questions or invite participation respectfully
-do not insist
Focus groups strengths
gather a lot of data quickly
small costs becuase you save time
empowerment of a group
more implication form the participants
discussions and interactions brings new responses
inclusive and safer space
consider non-verbal communication
Focus groups limitations
Difficult to plan: you need a lot of peolpe at the same time
Dominant voices: some people take more space which can be intimidating for other participants
compromised confidentiality: the researcher cannot guarantee that the other participants will keep the information confidential
risks of lacking depth: more difficult if you go quickly from one participants to the other
potentially intimidating
quality depends on the researcher’s experience/skills
What is critical thinking and why is it important?
What :
one of the most important skill as a researcher
analyse and evaluate research objectively
there are no perfect studies
Important:
to identify research gaps and limitations
to correctly interpret research results
to improve future research
Critical thinking: selection of a topic
researcher: who are the authors? who are they affiliated with?
-coherent with the expertise of the researcher
-conflict of interest
-motivations
Justifications for choosing this topic:
-empirically supported
-credible sources: be aware of predatory journals
Critical thinking: Literature review
present in all good research article
identifies and discusses all topics relevant to the study
sufficient number of sources and credible sources: young articles
defines key concepts
identifies main theories and trends relative to the topic
identifies gaps in previous studies
follow a logical set of arguments leading to the formulation of the problem/research question
Critical thinking: formulate a research problem
The problem in previous research should be clearly identified and explained
-conceptual
-methodological: population, methods used, data collection tools, data analysis eg. only quantitative studies to do a qualitative study
-outcomes: data interpretations and findings
Critical thinking: Research question
emerges from the problem identified
allows to address the problem
clarity of the question:
-concretely measurable and observable concepts
-variables are clearly identified for each concept
Critical thinking: Research design and data collection
Multiple sections should be detailed, explained and justified: should have enough details to be able to recreate the study
-paradigm and research approach
-population:
sampling and recruitment strategies
sample size : quanti =power analysis, quali = empirical saturation
eligibility criteria
Data collection methods:
-example of questions, choice of data collection tools
Ethical consideration
-how are participants/ data protected (in quali it is important that names are fictive)
-ethical approval from the university
Critical thinking: Data analysis
Who analyzed the data and how?: qualitative at least 2 people to make sure their is no biases
use of statistical software
consider the variables identified in the research question
includes how to analyse all the data collected
Critical thinking: results
sociodemographic characteristics:
-should allow to describe and understand who the participants are
Quantitative studies: report the scores of each variables
Qualitative: report relevant themes and interview extracts
identify relationships or lack of between variables
Critical thinking:
in the dicsussion section:
-highlight key findings: interpret and explain what they mean
contextualize and compare the findings with previous research
-explain how they are similar/different/new
implications of the results
-for research, intervention, population, etc
strengths of the study
limitations of the study
future research perspective
Criteria of scientific rigor in qualitative research
- credibility
- transferability
