SLA Research Summaries Flashcards
Pienemann (1998)
Pienemann developed the Processability Theory which states that beginning language learners have a limited capacity for syntactic information. Ties into his Teachability Hypothesis and developmental readiness.
Pienemann (1981)
Developed the Teachability Hypothesis which states that-
a) stages of development cannot be skipped through instruction.
b) instruction will be best if it focuses on the next developmental stage.
Selinker (1972)
The concept of interlanguage which is the language system that each learner constructs at any given point in development. It is natural language characterized by systematicity and variability.
Han (2004)
Fossilization is the phenomenon of non-progression of learning despite 1. continuous exposure, 2. adequate motivation, and 3. opportunity to practice. Can be global (affecting all of the IL) or local (affecting part of the IL).
Curtiss (1977)
Curtiss was Genie’s case worker when she was residing at Children’s Hospital. Genie never fully attained native-like proficiency and is a strong case in favor of the CPH, but there are many other external factors affecting the validity of Genie’s case.
Hyltenstam and
Abramsson (2001)
Studies have yet to identify a single adult L2 learner who is indistinguishable from a native speaker in all aspects of language.
Ioup et al. (1994)
The study of a L1 English speaker who was an exceptional L2 learner of Arabic. “Julie” was indistinguishable from a native speaker in all but a few aspects of Arabic. This is a strong case against CPH.
Norris and Ortega (2001)
Conducted a statistical meta-study of 45 case that looked at explicit and implicit FonF and FonFS instruction between 1980 and 1998. They found that instructed groups out performed non-instructed groups and that explicit FonF was the most effective.
Lado (1957)
Noticed that many learners errors were interference from the L1 and claimed that the structures that were most different would be most difficult to learn. The beginnings of Contrastive Analysis.
Stockwell et al. (1965)
The school of Contrastive Analysis believed that through L1-L2 comparison, one could predict learner errors because the L1 was the source of errors. The greater the difference in features of the L1 and features of the L2, the more more errors produced.
Zolb (1980)
Study with L1 French, L2 English learners and pronoun placement. Found that L1 did not accurately account for L2 errors (cast against Contrastive Analysis).
Birdsong (2006)
Age of Acquisition (AoA) is the age at which learners are immersed in an L2 context. AoA is the strongest predictor for ultimate attainment.
Lenneberg (1967)
Proposed that there is an age at which the acquisition of L1 at native-like levels becomes impossible, Critical Period Hypothesis. Children are predisposed to learn language.
McLaughlin (1987)
The information-processing theory and the idea of automatization. Learners move from controlled-processing the the short-term memory to automatic-processing in the long-term memory. This movement is called restructuring.
Lyster & Ranta (1997)
Observation of French immersion classes in Canada. They noted the type of feedback and they types of learner uptake. The types of feedback observed were 1) explicit correction, 2) recasts, 3) clarafication requests, 4) metalinguistic feedback, 5) Elicitation, and 6) Repetition.
They found that while recasts were the most common type of feedback used by teachers, it led to the least uptake. The most effective form of feedback for learner uptake was elicitation. Forms of feedback that did not give the learner the correct form were more effective for uptake in general.
Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam
(2006)
34 low-intermediate students observed in a private language school in New Zealand. Target form was past tense “-ed.” Students were given grammaticality judgement tests and immitation tests. They engaged in picture sequencing activities. They were given pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests on the target form. They found that explicit feedback with metalinguistic information was more effective than implicit feedback (as demonstrated on delayed post-tests. Explicit feedback contributes a learners developing language system.
Pica, Young, and
Doughty (1987)
Dyads of NSs and NNSs giving and following instructions respectively. Looked to analyze the differences between pre-modified input and interactionally modified input. They found that the quantity, redundancy, and complexity or utterances was greater in interactionally modified input. Supports Long’s Interaction Hypothesis.
Mackey (1999)
34 ESL learners in Austrialia. Sought to examine learner production of higher level question formation through interaction. Learners were grouped into 5 groups, two of which involved interaction. She found that more level 4 and 5 question types were produced by the groups that required/involved interaction. Supports Long’s Interaction Hypothesis.
Pica, Kanagy, and
Falodun (1993)
Defined “tasks” as activities used in language teaching that are designed to promote the sharing of ideas and opinions, collaboration toward a single goal, or competition to achieve individual goals. Tasks encourage interaction.
Jigsaw
Information Gap
Problem Solving
Decision Making
Opinion Exchange
Izumi (2002)
ESL students at American University, target form was relative clause production to see if learners noticed and acquired more through output activities. Subjects performed text reconstructions and comprehension activities. There were two output groups, two no output groups and a control group. One of each of the groups got enhanced input as well. He found that output participants noticed the form in both input and output. He also found that output had a positive effect on learning while enhanced input did not. Supports Swain’s Output Hypothesis.
Swain & Lapkin (1994)
Their hypothesis was that output gives rise to noticing. They studies 8th grade French immersion students in Canada using a think aloud protocol (later known as LREs). They found that as the learners produced the L2, they indeed noticed the gaps. They also found that the output and noticing triggered cognitive processes for metalinguistic knowledge.
Swain (1995)
3 Functions of Output
- Noticing/Triggering Function: Output leads to more awareness of what needs to be learned.
- Hypothesis Testing Function: Output leads to an opportunity to experiment with new or partially learned structures.
- Metalinguistic Reflection Function: Output is a tool for reflection which leads to greater awareness and control.
Swain & Lapkin (1998)
Defined Language Related Episode (LRE) as a learner initiated discussion of language form in which learners talk about the language they are producing, question their language use, and correct themselves or others.
Swain (1985)
Output Hypothesis - Swain said that interaction and negotiating for meaning should push the delivery of a message (pushed output) that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately. It is parallel to i + 1 and should be known has comprehensible output.
Corder (1972)
Defined intake as the portion of input that learners actually internalize.
Eckman (1977)
Stated the Markedness Differential Hypothesis, which is that marked forms tend to be more difficult to learn and cause more interlanguage solutions
Gass & Selinker (2001)
# Define transfer as the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation. Positive transfer is facilitation. Negative transfer is interference.
Thompson (2004)
Mother tongue: language spoken by the primary caregiver.
Primary Language: language a speaker feels most comfortable in in most contexts.
L1: The first language a child learns to speak and understand.
Home language: language used at home for everyday interaction.
Family language: lingua franca among family members.
Corder (1967)
First to focus attention on the importance of learner errors. Response the Contrastive Analysis because a majority of learner error could not be explained by L1 interference
Brown, R. (1973)
Studied L1 morpheme acquisition in English speaking children and found a consistent order of acquisition. This sparked research into the L2 order of acquisition of certain features.
Dulay & Burt (1982)
After studying Spanish L1 and Mandarin Chinese L1, English L2 morpheme acquisition for several years, concluded that it is highly probable that children of different language backgrounds and host background acquire morphemes in a similar order.
Gass & Selinker (2001)
[Error Analysis]
# Define error analysis as a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. Steps to EA- Collect data, identify errors, classify errors, quantify errors, analyze error source, conduct pedagogical remediation.
Krashen (1982)
[Input]
Krashen posited the Input Hypothesis which stated that learners will acquire language when the input contains language structures that are slightly beyond their current level.
i + 1 (i = current level, +1 is structures slightly out of the learner’s reach)
Long (1985)
Extended Krashen’s Input Hypothesis because input alone is not sufficient. The Interaction Hypothesis states that interactionally modified input and conversational adjustments lead to acquisition as learners negotiate for meaning. Conversation is fine-tuned to comprehensible input through:
- Repetitions
- Confirmation checks
- Comprehension checks
- Clarification Requests
Long & Robinson (1998)
Said that a crucial site for language development is the interaction between learners and other speakers because -
- negotiation of meaning
- interactionally modified imput
- opportunity for output
- elicitation of negative feedback to draw attention to mismatches.
Long (1996)
A reformulation of the Interaction Hypothesis to emphasize negative feedback and selected attention as the way to acquisition during negotiation of meaning.
