Methods and Teaching Content

Question 1

4 Communicative Competencies

Answer 1

Canale & Swain (1980) contend that communicative competence consists of four underlying competencies–

1. Grammatical
2. Discourse
3. Sociolinguistic
4. Strategic

Question 2

According to Richard and Rodgers (1982) there was a reformulation of the concept of method. Anthony’s approach, method and technique were renamed respectively, approach, design and procedure.

Answer 2

A method according to Richard and Rodgers was an “umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (1982, p. 1540. An approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language learning. Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and activities. Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived from one’s approach and design.

Question 3

Activities

Answer 3

Littlewood (1981) proposed two types of classroom activities that tried to achieve the aim of communicative competence. 1) Functional Communicative Activities - problem solving, following directions, and sequencing. 2) Social Interaction Activities - conversation, discussion, role-plays, debates, students centered activities.

Question 4

Audiolingual Method

Answer 4

Originally used by the Army in WWII, the Audiolingual Method is a language teaching method based on Behaviorist (Skinner - operate conditioning) learning models and structural view of language. In practice, the AL method emphasized systematic attention to pronunciation, and intensive oral drilling of basic sentence patterns through pattern practice (memorization, repetition). Only enough vocabulary was introduced to make drills possible. Critics of this method (notably, Chomsky)said that the behaviorist model of learning was not how humans learned language, and therefore would not tap into learner’s underlying competence (Richard & Rodgers, 2001, p. 50-67).

Question 5

Background Knowledge

Answer 5

What students bring to each learning activity. Also known as schema. Students acquire background knowledge from texts, activities, real-life experience, ect. Teachers of ELLs should activate as much background knowledge as possible in order to get the students ready for the task at hand. Important in SIOP.

Question 6

CLT Types of Learning & Teaching Activities

Answer 6

Littlewood (1981) Functional communicative activities include-

1. problem-solving
2. following directions
3. sequencing

Social interaction activities

1. conversation
2. discussion
3. role-plays
4. debates

Question 7

Communicative Language Teaching

Answer 7

Based on research of American sociolinguists (Hymes, Gumperz, Labov) and British functional linguists (Firth & Halliday). An approach that emphasizes interaction as the means and the goal of language learning. The primary function of CLT is interaction and communication. Fluency is important. CLT Learning Principles:

1. Communicative Principle - activities that involve real communication promote learning.
2. Task Principle- Activities in which language is used for carrying meaning tasks, promote learning.
3. Meaningfulness principle - language that is meaningful to the learner, supports the learning process. Classrooms activities should be meaningful and authentic.

Question 8

Competency Based Language Teaching

Answer 8

(CBLT) Focuses on what learners are expected to do with the language. Used to define educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess by the end of a course of study. Used the help new immigrants fit into the status quo and class relationships. (Schenck, 1978)

Question 9

Comprehensible Input

Answer 9

Second language input just beyond the learners current second language competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity, i + 1, (Krashen, 1982)

Question 10

Comprehensible output

Answer 10

Swain (1995) 1) Noticing/triggering function- Learners may notice a gap between what they produce and the target form. 2) Hypothesis testing - an opportunity for learners to test what they know. 3) Metalinguistic reflection - learners reflect on their own target language use and enables them to control and internalize linguistic knowledge. Must precise, coherent, and appropriate.

Question 11

Content Based Instruction

Answer 11

An approach in which L2 teaching is organized around content the student need to acquire, rather than around linguistic features. Draws on CLT principles.

Question 12

Content topic/concepts

Answer 12

While planning, carefully consider the content concepts you wish to teach and use district curriculum guidelines and grade-level content standards to guide you. In sheltered classrooms, this entails ensuring that although materials maybe adapted to meet the needs of English learners, the content is not diminished. When planning lessons around content concepts, consider the following: (1991, Gunderson)

1. the student’s first language literacy
2. their second language proficiency
3. their reading ability
4. the cultural and age appropriateness of the L2 materials
5. the difficulty level of the material to be read

Question 13

Cooperative Learning

Answer 13

(Kagan, 1992; Johnson & Johnson, 1994) Draws on philosophies of Piaget and Vygotsky. Learning happens best when there is a significant amount of interaction. Part of CLT. Emphasizes teamwork activities (peer editing, jigsaws). 5 Principles - (Kagan)

1. Positive Interdependence
2. Face-to-face interaction
3. Individual Accountability
4. Social Skills Training
5. Group Processing/Formation

Question 14

Current usage of terms: Methodology, Approach, Method, Curriculum/syllabus, and Technique according to (Harmer, 2001; Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Richards and Renandya, 2002)

Answer 14

1. Methodology: Pegagogical practices in general (including therortical undrpinnings and related research). Whatever considerations are involved in “how to teach” are methodological.
2. Approach: Theoretically well-informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings.
3. Method: A generalized set of classroom specificatoins for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials.
4. Curriculum/syllabus: designs for carrying out a particular language program. Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of designated group of learners in a defined context.
5. Technique: Any wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.

Question 15

define approach, method, and technique according to Edward Anthony (1963)

Answer 15

1. an approach is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching.
2. Method is described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach,
3. Techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method and therefore are in harmony with an approach as well. (Brown, p. 13, Teaching by Principles)

Question 16

Designer methods

Answer 16

Methods and ideas about language learning that evolved from a single idea or idea of a single theorist. Often not based in language theory and a very narrow theory of learning. Each method contributed to the field.

Question 17

Discourse Competence

Answer 17

Knowing how to begin and end a conversation. The ability to interpret meaning in relation to an entire discourse or text. Using discourse markers (Canale and Swain, 1980).

Question 18

Feedback

Answer 18

Any action that provides information on the result of a behavior. Can be negative or positive.

Question 19

Focus on form

Answer 19

Refers only to those form focused activities that arise during and embedded in meaning based lessons (TESL Wiki).

Question 20

Free voluntary reading/sustained silent reading

Answer 20

FVR is an educational theory that says that many student gains in reading can be encouraged by giving students time to read what they want without evaluation. The basic premise is that student who read often will read better. SSR is a method of implementing recreational reading or FVR. Students read at a designated time and place. ‘

Question 21

Grammar Translation Method

Answer 21

In the nineteenth century the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method. (Prator and Celce-Murcia 1979) listed the major charactericstics of Grammar Translation: 1) classes taught in mother tongue with little active use of the target language. 2) Vocabulary is not taught in context rather in isolated lists. 3) Elaborate, intricate explanations of grammar are given. 4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. 5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. 6) Little attention is given to the context of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. 7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. 8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Question 22

Grammar-Translation Approach

Answer 22

Nineteenth century approach developed by German scholars that focuses first on a detailed analysis of grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task to translation sentences and texts into and out of the TL.

Question 23

Grammatical Competence

Answer 23

The abstract abilities of grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and semantics of a language (Chomsky, 1965). Hymes (1972) said that linguistic theory needed to be part of a more general theory that incorporated communication and culture (Canale and Swain, 1980)

Question 24

Graphic Organizers

Answer 24

Provide students will visual clues they can use to supplement written or spoken words that may be hard to understand. (KWL Chart, story maps, venn diagrams, t-charts, webs, timelines, outlines.)

Question 25

Grouping

Answer 25

Refers to the way the students are broken up into classes or within the classroom by age or proficiency level. The goal is to maximize learning. Important considerations are groups size, mix abilities (or not). Types of group instruction include whole group instruction, small group instruction (6-8), tutorial discussion (>5).

Question 26

Guided Reading

Answer 26

A teacher directed mode of reading instruction in which the teacher directs the purpose, structure, and response to a reading activity leading the reader through the reading of a text. Good activity for a class with students of multiple proficiencies.

Question 27

Hands-On Activities

Answer 27

Something learners can touch, see, hear, feel, create, or participate in to make connections and construct personal, relevant meanings.

Question 28

High-Order Thinking Skills/Questions

Answer 28

A concept of education reform based on learning taxonomies (like Bloom’s) that proposes that some types of learning require more cognitive process, but also have more generalized benefits.

Question 29

Information Exchange Tasks

Answer 29

One of the primary techniques used in TBLT, in which two learners each have different pieces of information and must negotiate for meaning to share the information to complete a task.

Question 30

Inquiry Based Science

Answer 30

Type of lesson/technique that can be used in Content-Area instruction for ELLs. The goal of inquiry based science is to allow students to interact with each other using the English language and pertinent content vocabulary to inquire and make hypotheses (thus using th scientific processes) while obtaining content objectives.

Question 31

Interactive Writing

Answer 31

Involves the sharing of the pen between teacher and student. Focuses on concepts and conventions of print and how sounds connect with letter.

Question 32

Into-Through-Beyond

Answer 32

A lesson planning framework that involves getting students “into” (interested) the material, taking them “through” the material, and finally taking students “beyond” the material by making connections to new insights and learning opportunities (www.yesmagazine.org/curriculum).

Question 33

Invented Spelling

Answer 33

Euphemistically known as “creative spelling” and typically seen in dyslexic students when learners spell words based on cues other than standard orthographic rules. Not to be seen as necessarily negative step in a delopmental process for language learners that culminates in a greater understanding of spelling than simple relationships between sounds and their graphic representations (Read, 1975).

Question 34

Lexical Theory/Approach

Answer 34

Approach to language teaching based on the view that the basic building blocks of teaching and learning language are words and lexical phrases. The lexis (phrases, collocations, multiple word units) is the basis for communication and language learning. Makes use of concordancers. Lewis (1993)

Question 35

Multiple Intelligences

Answer 35

Gardener (1983) claimed that there were other types of intelligences rather than just general (IQ).

1. Linguistic
2. Logical Mathematical
3. Spatial
4. Musical
5. Bodily/Kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalist

Teachers should find out preferred intelligences and incorporate different modalities into lessons.

Question 36

Natural Approach

Answer 36

Terrell & Krashen (1982) based on the naturalistic approach (learn L2 the same way one learns and L1). Rejects formal grammatical organization as a prerequisite for teaching language. Emphasizes presenting comprehensible input in TL, uses techniques that provide comprehensible input, minimizing anxiety. With comprehensible input, you have full access to UG and acquisition will happen. Comprehensible Input Hypothesis Learning/Acquisition Hypothesis Natural Order Hypothesis Affect Filter Hypothesis Monitor Hypothesis

Question 37

Neurolinguistic Programming

Answer 37

NLP is not a language teaching method. It does not consist of techniques, theories, approach, or design. It’s a humanistic philosophy based on popular psychology that aims to convince people that they have the power to control their lives. (Grinder & Bandler, mid-1970’s)

Question 38

SDAIE Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English

Answer 38

Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English: Intended for teaching various academic content (such as social studies, science or literature) using the English language to students who are still learning English. SDAIE requires the student possess intermediate fluency in English as well as mastery of their native language. The instruction is carefully prepared so the student can access the English language content supported by material in their primary language and carefully planned instruction that strives for comprehensible input. SDAIE is a method of teaching students in English in such a manner that they gain skills in both the subject material and in using English. Unlike SEI (Sheltered English Immersion), the primary language support is available. Note, in California, sheltered instruction, is called SDAIE (specially designed academic instruction in English). Many other states are now using this term, SDAIE, to refer to their sheltered instruction programs. Dr. Wayne Wright says it carries a positive connotation, noting that instruction is different however is on grade level and appropriately challenging.

Question 39

SEI Sheltered English Immersion

Answer 39

English language acquisition process for young children in which nearly all classroom instruction is in English but with curriculum and presentation designed for children who are learning the language. Books and instructional materials are in English and all reading, writing, and subject matter are taught in English. The terms “sheltered English immersion” and Structured English immersion are often used interchangeably. Native and nonnative learners (language learners) are in the same classroom with sheltered instruction.

Question 40

Series Method

Answer 40

1800’s Francois Gouin developed the the Series Method after going to Germany and trying to learn German through memorization of verbs and vocabulary with no conversation with local Germans. He failed utterly. Upon returning home his young nephew had started speaking his first language. Gouin started to observe other children and how they learned their first language. He then came up with up with a method that taught language conceptually without teaching grammar, through a series of connected sentences.

Question 41

Sheltered Instruction

Answer 41

General/umbrella term referring to grade-level-content-area instruction that is provided in English but in a manner that makes it comprehensible to ELL students while promoting their English language development. Note, in California, sheltered instruction, is called SDAIE (specially designed academic instruction in English). Many other state are now using this term, SDAIE, to refer to their sheltered instruction programs. Dr. Wayne Wright says it carries a positive connotation, noting that instruction is different however is on grade level and appropriately challenging.

Question 42

SIOP Shelterd Instruction Observational Protocol

Answer 42

Developed by Jan Echevarria, MaryEllen Vogt, and Deborah Short (2007). The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) is a type of sheltered instruction, specifically a model, that follows a prescribed/systematic lesson plan and focuses on eight components: 1)Lesson Preparation, 2) Building Background, 3) Comprehensible Input, 4) Strategies, 5) Interaction, 6) Practice/Application, 7) Lesson Delivery, and 8) Review/Assessment. Using instructional strategies connected to each of these components, teachers are able to design and deliver lessons that address the academic and linguistic needs of their ELLs. The SIOP model is also known for focusing/utilizing both content and language objectives and the use of primarly langauge support. Because of it’s prescribed/systematic model lesson plan, the SIOP model can also be used as a lesson planner for sheltered lesson plans and also as an observation and evaluation tool for preservice and currently working teachers.

Question 43

Sociocultural/Pragmatic Competence

Answer 43

Knowing how to respond appropriately to different speech acts, understanding of social context, roles, shared information of the participants, and function of the interaction. The knowledge of the rules of interaction (Canale and Swain, 1980)

Question 44

Strategic Competence

Answer 44

The coping strategies for initiating, terminating, maintaining, repairing, and redirecting communication (Canale and Swain, 1980)

Question 45

Suggestopedia

Answer 45

Lazonov (1978) makes use of dialogues, situations, and translations to present and practice language, makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective (lower affective filter), influence of suggestion on human behavior. No language theory specified and criticized by Scovel (1979) as a pseudoscience.

Question 46

Tasked Based Instruction

Answer 46

A subset of CLT, approach based on the use of communicative and interactive tasks as the central units for the planning and delivery of instruction. Involve meaningful communication and interaction, negotiation, enable learner to acquire grammar as result of engaging in authentic language use. Pica (1993) described types of TBLT activities Jigsaw, Information Gap, Problem-Solving, Decision-Making, Opinion Exchange

Question 47

The Silent Way

Answer 47

Gattengo (1972) An approach based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom, but the learners should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Uses color charts and Cuisenaire rods. Learning is facilitated by 1) discovery learning and creates, 2) mediating physical objects, 3) problem-solving. Very little feedback or correction. The absence of explanations leads the learner to make generalizations about language. The opposite of the Natural Approach, Gattengo claimed that L2 was NOT learned the same way as the L1.

Question 48

Timeline

Answer 48

70’s-80’s Designer’s 1980’s Methods CLT: early on was a method; 50’s-60’s then became a set of principles Grammar Audioulingual olingual or Army ual or Army 1980’s Translation Method & PPP Behavorism Presentation, Practice, Produce 1800’s 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 CLT: Language is a system for the expression Designer Methods: ods of the 1970’s of meaning; primary function- Community Language Learning,Suggestopedia, interaction and communication. The Silent Way, Total Physical Response, , and the Natural Approach

Question 49

Total Physical Response

Answer 49

(Asher, 1977) Items are presented in the L2 as orders, commands, and instructions requiring physical response from the learner. Mimics L1 acquisition. Gives greater emphasis to comprehension and lower affective filter. No heavy productive demands on the learning and used often in K-12. Main drawback is that it’s very limited after the beginning level.

Question 50

Whole Language Approach

Answer 50

1990’s. Learning to read naturally with focus on real communication, opposed to the idea of teaching separate components of language in isolation. Key Points: 1) Language presented as whole, not isolated pieces, attempts to teach language in real contexts and situations, emphasizes purpose. 2)Activities move from whole to part. 3) All 4 modes (R,W,L,S) are used. 4) Language learned through social interaction (students work in pairs or groups).