SKINNER: BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS Flashcards
Who was the first psychologist to systematically study the consequences of behavior?
Edward L. Thorndike
What was Thorndike’s key contribution to behaviorism?
The Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfiers are “stamped in,” while those followed by annoyers are “stamped out.”
How did Thorndike modify the Law of Effect?
He minimized the importance of annoyers, stating that punishments inhibit behavior rather than “stamp it out.”
What was Skinner’s perspective on the Law of Effect?
- Skinner acknowledged its importance and focused on ensuring optimal conditions for learning through behavioral control.
- He agreed that rewards are more predictable than punishments in shaping behavior.
What was John B. Watson’s stance on psychology?
- He rejected concepts like consciousness, introspection, instincts, sensation, perception, motivation, mental states, and imagery.
- He argued that psychology should focus on objective study of behavior through stimulus-response (S-R) connections.
What was Watson’s primary goal for psychology?
Prediction and control of behavior through habit formation.
What did Watson compare human behavior to?
He likened human behavior to that of animals and machines, asserting it could be studied objectively.
What is the core principle of Skinner’s scientific behaviorism?
Human behavior should be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives.
What was Skinner’s view on motivation?
- People do not eat because they are hungry (hunger is an unobservable mental state).
- Instead, behaviorists should focus on observable variables, like food deprivation leading to eating.
How did Skinner compare psychology to other sciences?
He noted that other sciences progressed faster by rejecting explanations based on motives, needs, or willpower.
How did Skinner criticize psychology’s reliance on internal states?
- Using hunger, emotions, values, etc., as explanations for behavior limits scientific progress.
- Psychology should only study observable physical events to be truly scientific.
What was Skinner’s stance on internal states like hunger, emotions, and self-confidence?
He did not deny their existence but argued they should not be used to explain behavior.
What is the main focus of scientific behaviorism according to Skinner?
It interprets behavior but does not explain its causes
What is the purpose of interpretation in scientific behaviorism?
It allows generalization from simple learning conditions to more complex behaviors.
What is the difference between interpretation and explanation?
Interpretation helps in understanding behavior but does not provide a causal explanation.
What are the three main characteristics of science according to Skinner?
- Cumulative nature
- Empirical observation (Scientific attitude)
- Search for order and lawful relationships
How does scientific knowledge progress?
Science advances cumulatively (building upon past knowledge).
How does science differ from art, philosophy, and literature?
Unlike science, humanities do not progress cumulatively.
The genius of Plato, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare remains unmatched even today.
What is cumulative knowledge NOT the same as?
Technological progress.
What is the most critical characteristic of science?
Empirical observation (valuing facts over opinions).
What are the three components of the scientific attitude?
- Rejection of authority – A statement is not true just because an expert said it.
- Intellectual honesty – Scientists must report facts even if they contradict their beliefs.
- Suspension of judgment – Scientists must wait for clear, verified evidence before drawing conclusions.
What example illustrates rejection of authority in science?
Aristotle believed heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones.
Galileo tested and disproved this through empirical observation.
Why is intellectual honesty important in science?
Misrepresentation of data will eventually be exposed when others replicate the findings.
Why should scientists suspend judgment?
Premature conclusions can damage a scientist’s reputation.
What is the goal of science?
To find general principles and laws based on observations.
What are the key components of the scientific method?
- Prediction
- Control
- Description
What steps does a scientist follow in research?
- Make observations guided by theory.
- Develop hypotheses.
- Test hypotheses through experiments.
- Describe results accurately.
- Modify theory based on empirical data.
What was Skinner’s view on human behavior?
- Behavior is determined and follows lawful principles.
- There is no free will; behavior is controlled by identifiable variables.
. What was Skinner’s approach to studying behavior?
He used operant conditioning to identify conditions that shape behavior.
Scientific Behaviorism
- Allows for interpretation of behavior, not an explanation of causes.
- Interpretation helps generalize from simple to complex learning.
- Skinner applied findings from animals to humans.
Characteristics of Science (Skinner, 1953)
- Cumulative
- Empirical Attitude:
- Search for Order & Laws
Cumulative
Science builds on previous knowledge.
Empirical Attitude
- Rejects authority (including its own).
- Requires intellectual honesty.
- Suspends judgment until clear trends emerge
Search for Order & Laws
- Science aims to describe, predict, and control behavior.
- Behavior is determined and follows laws.
- Seemingly random behavior is just not yet understood.
Types of Conditioning (Skinner, 1953)
- Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning):
Classical (Respondent) Conditionin
A response is elicited by a specific stimulus.
Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning):
Behavior is emitted and reinforced, increasing recurrence.
Difference Between Classical & Operant Conditioning
Classical: Response is elicited (drawn out).
Operant: Response is emitted (spontaneously occurs).
Classical Conditioning
Neutral stimulus (CS) + Unconditioned stimulus (US) → Conditioned Response (CR).
Example: Little Albert experiment
Little Albert Experiment
- No initial fear of white rat.
- Loud noise paired with rat → fear response.
- Fear generalized to similar objects (rabbit, fur coat, Santa Claus mask).
- Key Findings:
(a) Infants have few innate fears.
(b) Fear can be learned via association.
(c) Fear can generalize to similar stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
- Reinforcement increases behavior recurrence.
- Organism operates on environment to get reinforcement.
Shaping (Successive Approximations)
- Behavior is taught gradually by reinforcing small steps.
- Example: Teaching a mentally challenged child to dress:
(a) Reward for moving hand near sleeve.
(b) Reward for putting hand in sleeve.
(c) Reward for pulling sleeve through, etc.
Three Components of Operant Conditioning (ABC Model)
- Antecedent (A) → Environment or setting.
- Behavior (B) → Action performed.
- Consequence (C) → Reinforcement or punishment.
Why Does Shaping Work?
- Behavior is continuous, not discrete.
- Organism moves slightly beyond previous response.
- Reinforcement strengthens only the desired direction.
Operant Discrimination
- Learning to respond to certain stimuli but not others.
- Due to reinforcement history, not innate ability.
- Example: Going to the dinner table because of previous reinforcement (not cognitive decision).
Stimulus Generalization
- Responding similarly in new situations with shared features.
- Example: Buying a concert ticket for a band similar to a favorite band.
What are the two effects of reinforcement according to Skinner?
It strengthens behavior and rewards the person.
Why are reinforcement and reward not synonymous?
Reinforcement strengthens behavior, but not all reinforced behaviors are rewarding or pleasing to the person.
Why is food reinforcing, according to Skinner
Food is not reinforcing because it tastes good; it tastes good because it is reinforcing.
What are the two types of reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Define positive reinforcement.
The addition of a stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior occurring (e.g., food, money, social approval).
Define negative reinforcement.
he removal of an aversive stimulus that increases the probability of behavior occurring (e.g., reducing hunger by eating).
How does negative reinforcement differ from positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement adds a beneficial stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus.
How is anxiety related to negative reinforcement?
Any behavior that reduces anxiety (e.g., exercising, smoking, drinking) is negatively reinforcing.
How does negative reinforcement differ from punishment?
Negative reinforcement strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus, while punishment weakens behavior.
What are the two types of punishment?
- Presentation of an aversive stimulus (e.g., electric shock).
- Removal of a positive reinforcer (e.g., taking away a child’s phone).
What are the three effects of punishment?
- Suppression of behavior (e.g., spanking stops teasing but doesn’t teach kindness).
- Conditioning of negative emotions (e.g., punishment creates anxiety, guilt).
- Spread of effects (e.g., avoiding parents or sister after punishment).
Why is punishment less effective than reinforcement?
Punishment suppresses behavior without teaching an alternative; reinforcement shapes behavior predictably.
What is a conditioned reinforcer?
A stimulus that gains reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money).
What are Skinner’s five generalized reinforcers?
Attention, approval, affection, submission of others, and tokens (money).
What are the two main types of reinforcement schedules?
Continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement.
Why did Skinner prefer intermittent schedules?
They use reinforcers efficiently and make responses more resistant to extinction.
What are the four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules?
- Fixed-Ratio (FR)
- Variable-Ratio (VR)
- Fixed-Interval (FI)
- Variable-Interval (VI)
Fixed-Ratio
Reinforcement after a set number of responses
eg: Paid per 100 bricks laid
Variable-Ratio
Reinforcement after an average number of responses.
eg: Slot machine payouts
Fixed-Interval
Reinforcement after a fixed time period.
eg: Monthly salary
Variable-Interval
Reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals.
eg: Random boss checks at work.
How does reinforcement schedule affect extinction?
Behaviors learned through intermittent reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those learned through continuous reinforcement.
operant extinction
the weakening of a previously learned response due to non-reinforcement
What are four causes of lost learning?
- Forgetting over time.
- Interference from other learning.
- Punishment.
- Extinction due to lack of reinforcement.
What is Skinner’s view on the applicability of animal behavior studies to humans?
Skinner believed that understanding animal behavior can generalize to human behavior, just as physics applies to space and genetics to evolution
What was Skinner’s agreement with John Watson regarding psychology?
Skinner agreed with Watson that psychology must be a scientific study of observable behavior.
What sequence did Skinner suggest for studying behavior?
From animals → psychotics → mentally challenged children → other children → complex adult behavior.
What are the three forces that shape human behavior and personality?
- Natural selection
- Cultural practices
- Individual history of reinforcement
How does natural selection contribute to human personality?
: It shapes behavior beneficial for survival; behaviors reinforced over generations tend to persist.
How do contingencies of reinforcement and survival interact?
Some behaviors are both individually reinforcing and beneficial for species survival, e.g., sexual behavior.
Which has a greater role in shaping human behavior: natural selection or reinforcement contingencies?
Contingencies of reinforcement, especially cultural influences, shape most human behavior.
What did Skinner (1989a) state about explaining human behavior?
To understand why people behave as they do, one must consider reinforcement histories and complex social contingencies (cultures).
How does selection influence cultural practices?
Cultural practices survive through selection, similar to natural selection and reinforcement contingencies.
Why do people observe cultural practices according to Skinne
Not by choice, but because societies that reinforced these behaviors survived and transmitted them.
Why do fewer people today invent new tools or languages?
Because these behaviors were once reinforcing for survival but are now largely established practices.
Give two examples of cultural remnants that are no longer adaptive.
Division of labor – Increased productivity but led to unrewarding work.
Warfare – Once beneficial for survival, now a global threat.
Did Skinner acknowledge internal states like love, anxiety, and fear?
Yes, but he rejected using them as explanations for behavior.
How did Skinner (1989b) propose studying inner states?
As observable behavior, despite the limitation in direct observation.
How did Skinner (1974) define self-awareness?
Humans are aware of their consciousness, environment, and their interaction with it.
How is self-awareness part of scientific analysis?
Private events (thoughts, feelings) exist within the skin but can still be scientifically studied.
According to radical behaviorism, what are drives?
Explanatory fictions; they do not cause behavior but describe the effects of deprivation and satiation.
Radical behaviorism
It views behavior as the primary subject of study, and that behavior is shaped by environmental factors.
It rejects the idea that inner states, like thoughts and feelings, are relevant to explaining behavior.
What are the key factors influencing eating behavior?
- Deprivation – Increases likelihood of eating.
- Satiation – Decreases likelihood of eating.
- Other factors – Hunger pangs, food availability, past reinforcement.
How did Skinner (1974) explain emotions?
Through survival contingencies and reinforcement, not as causes of behavior.
contingencies
the relationships between events, such as behaviors and their consequences.
These relationships can be used to explain how behaviors are learned and can be modified.
Types of contingencies
- Reinforcement contingencies
- Behavioral contingencies
- Three-term contingencies
Reinforcement contingencies
The relationship between a response and a reinforcer, which can be positive or negative
Three-term contingencies
Made up of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences
Examples of contingencies
Behavioral contingencies
The if-then conditions that set the occasion for behavior and its consequences
How does natural selection influence emotions like fear and anger?
Individuals with stronger fear/anger responses survived and passed on these traits.
How does reinforcement shape emotional behavior?
Behaviors linked to positive emotions (joy, pleasure) are reinforced and more likely to recur.
How did Skinner (1974) view purpose and intention in behavior?
He acknowledged them but cautioned against using them as explanations for behavior. They exist within the skin but are not directly observabl
How can purpose itself be reinforcing?
If someone believes their purpose for jogging is to feel better and live longer, this thought acts as a reinforcing stimulus, motivating them to continue jogging.
How did Skinner view complex human behavior
He believed that even the most abstract and complex behaviors are shaped by natural selection, cultural evolution, and reinforcement history.
What did Skinner (1987a) say about consequences and behavior?
The consequences of operant behavior are not what the behavior is now for; they are merely similar to the consequences that have shaped and maintained it
Did Skinner deny higher mental processes like cognition and reason?
No, but he analyzed them as behaviors shaped by reinforcement rather than mental events.
How does Skinner explain problem-solving?
It involves covert behavior where the person manipulates variables until they find the correct solution, based on environmental contingencies.
What did Skinner (1974) say about analyzing human thought?
Thought is the most difficult behavior to analyze but can be understood without resorting to the concept of “mind.”
How does Skinner’s view challenge traditional memory theories?
He argued that recalling names or finding lost objects is not about searching a mental storehouse but about increasing the probability of responses.
How does behaviorism account for creativity?
Creative behavior is like natural selection—random variations in behavior are selected by reinforcing consequences.
How do creative people enhance their behavior?
They change their environment, travel, read, or engage in different activities to generate responses that might be reinforced.
Did Skinner accept the idea of an unconscious mind?
No, but he acknowledged unconscious behavior, which occurs when people fail to observe the relationship between environmental variables and their behavior.
What two factors influence differences in creativity?
Genetic endowment and past reinforcement experiences.
How does Skinner explain “reactive love”?
A child punished for hateful behavior towards their mother may suppress negative feelings and instead increase positive behaviors due to reinforcement.
How can punishment lead to unconscious behavior?
If a child is repeatedly punished for sexual play, they may suppress both the behavior and any thoughts related to it.
How did Skinner (1953) view dreams?
As covert and symbolic forms of behavior subject to reinforcement contingencies.
How are dreams related to wish fulfillment?
They allow repressed aggressive or sexual stimuli to be expressed without punishment.
How does Skinner explain social groups?
Individuals form groups because they have been reinforced for doing so.
Why do people stay in groups that abuse them?
Some members provide reinforcement.
They lack the means to leave.
Intermittent reinforcement keeps them hopeful.
What ultimately controls human behavior?
Environmental contingencies, whether set by society, another person, or oneself.
Did Skinner believe in free will?
No, he argued that behavior is determined by environmental factors, not free will.
What is the primary reason individuals form social groups according to Skinner?
Individuals form social groups because such behavior tends to be reinforcing.
How do groups exercise control over their members?
roups exercise control by formulating written or unwritten laws, rules, and customs that exist beyond individual live
What are the four principal methods of operant conditioning mentioned by Skinner?
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, adding an aversive stimulus (punishment), and removing a positive stimulus (punishment).
What does “describing contingencies” involve
: It involves using language to inform people of the consequences of their behavior, often through threats and promises.
How can deprivation and satiation be used as methods of social control?
Deprivation increases the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., hunger increases eating), while satiation decreases it (e.g., being full reduces eating).
What role do physical restraints play in social control?
Physical restraints counteract conditioning effects and result in behavior contrary to what would have occurred without restraint.
How does Skinner view personal freedom in relation to behavior?
Skinner argues that behavior is shaped by contingencies of survival and the social environment, rather than personal freedom.
What are some techniques for exercising self-control without free choice?
Using physical aids, changing the environment, arranging escape from aversive stimuli, taking drugs, and engaging in substitute behaviors.
How can individuals exercise self-control according to Skinner?
Individuals can manipulate variables in their environment, similar to how they would control another’s behavior.
What are the detrimental effects of excessive social control and self-control?
they can lead to inappropriate behavior and unhealthy personality development.
What are the three basic strategies people use to counteract excessive social control?
Escape, revolt, and passive resistance.
How does the defensive strategy of escape manifest in individuals?
Individuals withdraw physically or psychologically from the controlling agent, making it difficult to form intimate relationships and leading to mistrust.
How does passive resistance differ from escape and revolt?
Passive resistance is more subtle and irritating to controllers, often involving stubbornness or excuses rather than overt actions.
What are inappropriate behaviors, and how do they arise?
Inappropriate behaviors stem from self-defeating counteractions to social control or failed self-control, often intensified by strong emotions.
What does blocking out reality entail as an inappropriate behavior?
It involves ignoring aversive stimuli and not addressing unpleasant truths
What are self-deluding responses, and why are they negatively reinforcing?
Self-deluding responses include boasting, rationalizing, or grandiosity; they are negatively reinforcing as they help individuals avoid feelings of inadequacy.
How does self-punishment manifest in individuals?
Self-punishment can occur through direct self-harm or by arranging circumstances where others impose punishment.
What did Skinner (1987b) believe is a chief obstacle to psychology becoming scientific?
Psychotherapy is one of the chief obstacles blocking psychology’s attempt to become scientific.
How do Skinner’s ideas on shaping behavior impact therapy
His ideas have significantly influenced behavior therapy and extend to a description of how all therapy functions
In therapy, what role does the therapist play?
The therapist acts as a controlling agent in shaping behavior.
How should a patient differentiate between authority figures and a therapist?
A patient must learn to distinguish between punitive authority figures (cold, critical) and a permissive therapist (warm, supportive).
What is the process of shaping behavior in therapy?
Therapeutic behavior is molded by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior over time.
What is Skinner’s view on fictional constructs in therapy?
He believed that no therapeutic purpose is served by postulating explanatory fictions and that behavior can be understood through learned experiences.
How do traditional therapists explain behavior compared to behavior therapists?
Traditional therapists use fictional constructs (e.g., defense mechanisms), while behavior therapists account for behavior through learning principles without postulating internal causes.
What techniques do behavior therapists use?
Behavior therapists use techniques based on operant conditioning, sometimes incorporating principles of classical conditioning.
What role do behavior therapists play in the treatment process?
They actively point out the positive consequences of certain behaviors, the aversive effects of others, and suggest behaviors that lead to long-term positive reinforcement.
