Skill Acqusition (P1) Flashcards
What is a skill?
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time energy or both.
What are the characteristics of skill? Remember ACE FACE
Aesthetically pleasing, consistent, efficient, fluent, accurate, controlled, economical
What are three categories of skill? And describe them
Cognitive skills- The ability to solve problems by thinking
Perceptual skills- sensing things
Motor skills- a skill in which the movement is voluntary such as brushing your teeth
What are types of skill are on the muscular involvement continuum?
Gross skill fine skills
What are the characteristics of gross skills?
. Whole body . Large muscle movements . Vigorous . Extended Example: rugby tackle
What are the characteristics of a fine skill?
. Intricate movements . Small muscle groups . Precise . Delicate . Limited Example: wrist and finger action of a spin bowler
What types of skill are on the continuity continuum?
Continuous serial discrete
What are the characteristics of a continuous skill?
. No clear start and finish
. Repetition of same skill or movement
Example: running, cycling and swimming
What are the characteristics of serial skills?
. Several discrete elements put together to make a sequence
Example: gymnastic routine
What are the characteristics of a discrete skill?
. Clear start and finish
. Skill can be repeated but performer starts again
Example: baseball throw, football penalty
What categories of skill are on the pacing continuum?
Self paced externally paced
What are the characteristics of self paced skill?
. Performer has rate of which skill is carried out
. Skill is under control
Example: tennis serve
What are the characteristics of an externally paced skill?
. Control over the rate is not held by performer
. Often involves reaction of performer
Example: surfing
Which categories of skill are in the Environmental influence continuum?
Close open
What are the characteristics of a closed skill?
. Environment predictable
. Actions performed with few decisions
Example shot putt thrower
What are the characteristics of a open skill?
. Environment unpredictable . Actions require perceptual monitoring . Requires adaptation of movement . Mostly externally paced Example is a pass in a team game
What are the categories of skill in the difficulty continuum?
Simple complex
What are the characteristics of simple skill?
. Little information to process
. Few decisions to make
Example: swimming and sprinting
What are the characteristics of a complex skill?
. High perceptual load leading to many decisions
. Significant use of feedback
Example: tennis serve
What are the categories of skill for the organisation continuum?
Low High
What are the characteristics of a skill in low organisation?
. A skill easily broken down into sub routines
Example: swimming strokes
What are the characteristics of skills high in organisation?
. Subroutines are very closely linked together and very difficult to separate
Example: golf swing
What’s the definition of transfer ?
The effect of the learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
What is the definition of positive transfer? and give an example
When the learning of one skill enhances/helps/AIDS the learning and performance of another.
Example: the skill of throwing transfers positively to the racquet arm action of a tennis serve.
What is the definition of negative transfer? and give an example
When the learning of one skill hinders or impedes the learning and performance of another skill
What is the definition of zero transfer? and give an example
When the learning of one skill has no effect on the learning of another.
For example the swimming arm action and the placement in rock climbing. Nothing in common.
What is the definition of bi-lateral transfer? and give an example
When the learning of one skill is transferred/passed across the body from limb to limb. For example a right footed footballer would be encouraged to use the left foot when required.
How must a coach ensure positive transfer?
A teacher or a coach must ensure that positive transfer is taking place and that its effects are optimised, while limiting the possibility of negative transfer.
What is the definition of whole practice?
Practising a skill in its entirety.
What are the characteristics of whole practice?
. Skill is fast, ballistic and discrete
. Highly organised- cannot be easily broken down
. Skill is simple and does not require much thought
. The kinaesthesis of the task is required.
. Performer is advanced in the autonomous stage of learning
.
What are the advantages of whole practice?
. Good for skills high in organisation or continuous
. Allows learner to develop the kinaesthesis of the skill
. Helps Lerner to understand movement
. Quicker than other methods
. Good for ballistic skills
. Transfer is likely to be positive
What are the disadvantages of whole practice?
. Not suitable for complex or dangerous skills
. A learner might be overwhelmed by doing the whole action
. Could mean loss of confidence
What is the definition of whole-part-whole practise?
Assessing the skill, identifying a weakness to practise, then putting the skill back together.
What are the advantages of whole part whole practice?
. Can provide motivation when long standing weakness is corrected
. this method maintains the feel of the whole skill and transition between each part
What are the disadvantages of whole part whole practice?
. Can produce negative transfer unless coach integrates the part back into the whole during same session
. more time consuming
What is the definition of progressive part practice?
. ractising the first part of the skill then adding parts gradually. sometimes called chaining
What are the advantages of progressive part practice?
. performer can concentrate on one aspect of the task and can potentially correct specific weaknesses
. learner can rest so fatigue is reduced
. good for performers low in motivation as each brings success in stages
. allows both player and coach to focus on specific issues
What are the disadvantages of progressive part practice?
. can be time consuming
. may neglect feel of whole task and may ignore links between sub routines
. danger of negative transfer between each sequence of a skill
What is the definition of massed practice?
massed practice is continuous, with no rest intervals. It is used when the skill is discrete, simple and the environment is closed.
What are the advantages of massed practice?
. promotes fitness so that the performer can cope with the extended demands of the task.
. makes skill almost automatic so responses become habitual
. player therefore can repeat skill consistently
. motor programmes can be stored more easily to be recalled in the future
. effecient use of coach and player time
What are the disadvantages of massed practice?
. can produce fatigue
. danger of negative transfer unless practice conditions are similar to real game
. demand high on performer
What is the definition of distributed practice?
Distributed practice involves rest intervals between sessions.
when would you use distributed practice?
should be used when the skill is continuous and the performer may need a break.
What are the advantages of distributed practice?
. takes pressure off performer and reduces risk of fatigue
. good for beginners- controlled progress can be made
. performer could use mental practise during rest intervals
. may provide motivation when feedback is given by coach during rest intervals
. safe way of practising more dangerous activities
What are the disadvantages of distributed practice?
. time consuming
. may not be useful for expert players
. danger of negative transfer- could happen after rest intervals of coach fails to integrate practice session
What is the definition of varied practice?
changing the practice type and the practice drills
when would you use varied practice?
Good for training for team sports to change drills and the type of practice so players adapt to changes in environment. Good for if skill is open . During a continuous skill a performer may need varied practice to maintain motivation.
What are the advantages of varied practice?
. Allows performers to adapt skills to changing environments. Good for open skills
. increases motivation
. helps to build sub routines
. helps to develop method of adapting existing skills from the memory store called a ‘schema’
What are the disadvantages or varied practice?
. time consuming
. possibility of negative transfer
. fatigue
. too demanding
What is the definition of mental practice?
Going over it in the mind without movement
what skills would you use for mental practice?
serial and complex complex
What are the advantages of mental practice?
. improves reaction time
. builds motor programmes
. builds confidence
. controls anxiety
What are the disadvantages of mental practice? And how would it be coached?
. must be correct
. environment must be calm
2) For beginners- mental practice should be short and key parts emphasised
For experts- the mental practice technique should be established and can be used for a whole session.
What are the three stages of learning?
stage 1: The Cognitive Stage
stage 2: The Associative Stage
stage 3: The Autonomous Stage
What is the definition for the cognitive stage of learning?
The first stage of learning used by a novice. Understanding and sub routines are explored by trial and error.
Explain the cognitive stage of learning
.Performer has to think carefully about actions
. performer may use extrinsic feedback
. motor programmes are not yet fully developed so trial and error has to be used
What is the definition of the Associative Stage of learning?
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother
What are the characteristics of being in the Associative Stage?
. performer moves from being a competent beginner to an accomplished performer
. performer must practice
. performer may now compare themselves to a top level performer called modeling
. movements become smoother and more coordinated
What is the definition of the autonomous stage?
The final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific
What are the characteristics of the autonomous stage?
.Reached after effective practice
. high level practice must continue to remain in this stage
. actions are fluent, efficient and automatically undertaken
. performer can concentrate on fine details
. motor programmes are fully developed
What is the definition of feedback?
Information received to amend performance and make improvement
What is the definition of positive feedback?
Information is given to given to performer about what is good and what is going well and offers motivation to maintain effort.
What is the key purpose of positive feedback?
Encouragement
What is the definition of negative feedback?
Information is given to the performer as to what is going wrong so that errors can be corrected and bad habits eliminated.
What is the purpose of negative feedback?
Error correction
What is the definition of extrinsic feedback?
Feedback from an outside source such as a coach so that the performer gains a view of what they need to improve on or which aspects need to be maintained
What is the definition of intrinsic feedback?
Information from within the performer developed from a sense of kinaesthesis of what needs to be improved and needs to be maintained.
What is the definition of knowledge of results?
Feedback which gives an initial outcome of the attempted skill
What is the purpose of knowledge of results?
Gives an indication of whether the skill has been successful or not.
What is the definition of knowledge of performance?
Knowledge of the initial result expanded with more detailed analysis of the action
What is the purpose of knowledge of performance?
Concerned with technique and how technique can be developed to produce better results
What feedback would benefit performer in the cognitive stage of learning?
Positive and external feedback
What type of feedback is most effective for performers in the autonomous stage of learning?
Negative and intrinsic feedback
What feedback would be used for performers in the associative stage?
A mixture of External and intrinsic feedback
What is a learning plateau for a performers performance?
A period of no improvement of performance
What can a learning plateau be illustrated?
Learning curve
What is a learning curve?
A visual representation of what happens when a closed skill is performed repeatedly over a period of time by a novice.
What are the four stages of a learning curve?
Stage 1: rate of learning=slow, performance=poor, performer it cognitive stage working out sub routines+ trial and error
Stage 2: rapid acceleration in rate of learning-performer begins to master task
Stage 3: performance has reached a plateau
Stage 4: period towards end of task when performance may deteriorate perhaps due to fatigue
What is the definition of drive reduction?
An end of task period when the initial drive for success has been lost ,due to mastering the original challenge, and performance may get worse.
What 6 factors cause a plateau?
- Lack of motivation
- Boredom
- Poor coaching
- Limit of ability
- Targets set too low
- Fatigue
What are the solutions to a plateau?
- Extensions of a task- new challenge for performer
- New coach
- New coach could offer more praise and provide more motivation
- Rest to avoid fatigue
- More variety to task to reduce boredom
- Concept of plateau explained to performer
- Feedback could be given more to help improve performance and motivation
What is the definition of visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen, a demonstration.
What is the purpose of visual guidance?
To create a mental image for a beginner for reference for a future practice.
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
. Can highlight specific weaknesses
. Shows performer what skill looks like as a result of practice
. Creates mental image
. Nearly always in conjunction with verbal guidance
What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
. Demonstration must be completely accurate else may be copied incorrectly
. Performer must have ability to perform demonstration
. confusion can be caused by too much information given
What is the definition of verbal guidance?
An explanation (nearly always used to explain a demonstration)
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
. Helps to build the correct mental picture
. Can aid advanced performers to complement actions in practice with technical and detailed advice
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
. Too much information may cause confusion
. Loss of concentration unless guidance is brief, relevant and meaningful
. Language must be appropriate for the learners level
. It’s a means of feedback so the coach should use the correct feedback depending on the performer
What is the definition of manual guidance?
Physical support from someone
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
. Helps to eliminate danger
. Builds confidence of performer
. Fear and anxiety may be reduced
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
. Detrimental effect on performance if over used
. Too much reliance on the support could interfere with the feel of the task in the real environment
. Performer may become too reliant and losing confidence to do the task without it
. Coach can be up close and personal and potentially off putting
What is the definition of mechanical guidance?
An artificial aid to help performance.
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
. Helps to eliminate danger . Builds confidence of performer . Fear and anxiety may be reduced . Feel for whole task . Can be used for disabled athletes or those recovering from injury
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
. Detrimental effect on performance if over used
. Too much reliance on the support could interfere with the feel of the task in the real environment
. Performer may become too reliant and losing confidence to do the task without it
What is the definition of operant conditioning?
The use of reinforcement to ensure correct responses are repeated
What are the three characteristics of operant conditioning?
. Based on trial and error learning
. A coach may manipulate the environment using operant conditioning
. Shapes behaviour by using reinforcement
What are the key sections of observational learning? Using DARMMM
Demonstration- attention- retention- motivation-motor production-matching performance
How can the coach use attention to to ensure the demonstration is more likely to be copied?
. Making the demonstration attractive to the performer.
. point out the function of the movement- cruyff turn is to fool defender
. information give is loud and clear
. performer is of simlar ability
How can the coach use retention to to ensure the demonstration is more likely to be copied?
. by breaking the demonstration into chunks
. repeating demonstrations
. encourage metal practice
. use of catchphrases
. performer should attempt skill quickly after demonstration
How can the coach use motor production to ensure the demonstration is more likely to be copied?
. By making sure the player has the physical ability to to copy the demonstration
. Make task easy and slowing increase complexity
How can the coach use motivation to to ensure the demonstration is more likely to be copied?
Motivate by giving praise and rewards or offering positive feedback and reinforcement
Who came up with the Social Development theory?
Vygotsky
What is the definition of the social development theory?
Learning by associating with others
Who might have the most influence with social development? and how?
MKO or more knowledgeable other. Demonstrating values and action such as a high degree of effort
During development with others, how are skills learnt according to the social development theory?
Inter-psychological learning
What is inter-psychological learning in the social development theory?
Learning from others externally such as an MKO
Once external advice has been absorbed, what learning takes place in the Social development theory?
Intra-psychological learning
What is Intra-psychological learning in the Social development theory?
Learning from within to analyse and construct actions based on what they have learnt externally.
What is constructivism in the Social development theory?
Learning in stages based on the current level of the performer.
What is the zone of proximal development in the Social development theory?
The next stage of learning based on the performers needs, expectations and current level of performance.
What are the three stages of proximal development in the Social development theory?
What can I do alone?
What can I do with help?
What can I not do yet?
Who came up with insight learning?
Group of German psychologists called Gestalts
What is the definition of insight learning?
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill
What is the principle of operant conditioning?
The idea that reinforced actions are strengthened and that incorrect actions are weakened.
What is an example of operant conditioning?
A drill with a basketball player shooting a basket. 1st attempt=missed shot. 2nd attempt=in the net=good feeling(satisfier). this feeling is reinforced by the coach positively or negatively
What is positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response
How does operant conditioning work?
Works by strengthening the stimulus response bond
What is negative reinforcement?
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response
What is punishment?
When an unpleasant stimulus is given to prevent incorrect actions recurring.
what is an example of constructivism in the social development theory?
Footballer may be able to run in a straight line with the ball on their own but require a coaches help to dribble round cones with close control
What are the features of insight learning?
. focuses on the whole task
. emphasises use of intuition from the performer
. based on past experiences
What is an example of insight learning?
3000 knows she is going to struggle in the last 400m sprint as the other people in the race are better sprinters. She works out that she should increase the pace of the race prior to the final lap to tire the other racers out so there sprint is less effective. If successive, the tactic will be used again.
What are the advantages of insight learning?
. Develops a performers intrinsic thinking without need for coach
. Promotes understanding
. Gives self-satisfaction and motivation
What are the disadvantages of insight learning?
. Some performers may not have the ability to think for themselves
. May be too time consuming
