Skeleton Flashcards
AXIAL SKELETON
forms central part of skeletal system
made from vertebrae, ribs, sternum and skull/cranium
serves to protect vital organs
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON
MOVEMENT ~ muscular system interacts via joints to produce movement ~ musculo-skeletal system
PROTECTION
SHAPE
STORAGE ~ storage of minerals esp calcium and phosphorus. calcium used for healthy bones and teeth and many energy releasing reactions. Phosphorus plays role in this too, as well as forming part of the membrane of every cell in the body.
PRODUCTION ~ produces blood cells - red blood cells for transportation of oxygen and white blood cells for immune system
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
formed of the peripheral bones of the pelvis, scapulae, arms and legs
serves to generate and control movement across joints using its bones as levers
ECTOMORPH BODY TYPE/SOMATOTYPE
narrower shoulders and hips
tall and slender
low levels of body fat and muscle mass
suited to endurance based activities
long bony levers mean disadvantaged in heavy resistance activities
long distance runners will have dominant ectomorph physique
MESOMORPH BODY TYPE/SOMATOTYPE
wide shoulders and narrow hips = V shape appearance
high lean muscle mass, low body fat
suited to power activities and strength based training
ENDOMORPH BODY TYPE/SOMATOTYPE
wide hips and narrow shoulders = pear shaped
high body fat ~ not suited to high level competitive sport or exercise
should not be a deterrent however
proceed with caution and take it easy in early stages
OSSFICIATION
process of bone growth and development from infant to adult.
at birth ~ infant bone composed mostly of cartilage
during development ~ calcium is added to junction between epiphysis and diaphysis = ‘epiphysial growth plate’
adulthood ~ growth plate disappears = epiphysis and diaphysis fuse
REGULATION OF OSSIFICATION BY TWO CELLS
OSTEOBLASTS ~ largely responsible for bone formation and deposit calcium into bone = denser and stronger
OSTEOCLASTS ~ remove calcium for metabolic purposes = reduce bone density
OSTEOPOROSIS
osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast = bones lose density and become more prone to fractures
regular program of weight bearing exercise and healthy diet increases activity of osteoblasts so it is greater than that of osteoclasts
exercise has ‘ameliorating’ and positive effect on osteoporosis
swimming is not weight bearing so has little impact but might be only suitable exercise for those suffering with advanced osteoporosis
OSTEOPOROSIS RISK FACTORS
INACTIVITY ~ /lack of weight bearing exercise
physically disabled people at risk when unable to load areas of their skeleton
DIET ~ inadequate calcium and phosphorus consumption restricts bone growth and maintenance (99% of body’s calcium stores is in skeleton)
AGE ~ risk increases with age
esp post menopausal females as oestrogen helps maintain bone density
PREGNANCY ~ results in hormone changes which increases risk
OSTEOARTHRITIS
the degeneration of the articular cartilage that lines the inside of a joint
normally occurs due to wear and tear = cartilage becomes thinner and rougher = painful joint movement
to compensate for loss of bone and cartilage, the body forms new bone mass (osteophytes) on ends of bone
this new mass changes structure of synovial joint = deformity and pain
OSTEOARTHRITIS RISK FACTORS
AGE GENDER OVERWEIGHT/OBESE SMOKING REPETITIVE ACTIONS FAMILY HISTORY
LONG BONES
act as levers
generally found where large range of movement is required
recognised by distinct diaphysis (shaft) and prominent epiphysis (end)
egs = humerus and femur
SHORT BONES
precise and fine movement
less strength than long bones
egs = carpals and tarsals
FLAT BONES
attachment sites for skeletal muscles
protectors of vital organs
egs = cranium, pelvis, scapula and ribs
IRREGULAR BONES
located in spine and face
protect vital organs (viscera) and support surrounding structures
irregular structure of facial bones = unique facial features
SESAMOID BONES
resemble shape of sesame seeds
embedded within a tendon
egs = patella, first metacarpal, first metatarsal
DIAPHYSIS (STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE)
also referred to as shaft
strongest part of the bone
made from dense ‘compact bone’ that is covered with hard fibrous outer layer
EPIPHYSIS (STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE)
end of the bone
mostly made of spongey, cancellous bone - makes it lighter but also weaker and prone to fractures
between the epiphysis and diaphysis is a growth plate where calcium is deposited to form new bone - early adulthood plate fuses
PERIOSTEUM
refers to hard outer protective casing of the bone
provides attachment sites for the muscles
largely composed of dense, compact bone - much greater tensile strength
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
smooth and glossy tissue that furnishes ends of bones for smooth movement
also soaks up synovial fluid which assists shock absorption - as it makes texture more flexible and spongy
MEDULLARY CAVITY
central component of bone
contains yellow bone marrow
towards epiphysis internal structure changes to become more spongy or ‘cancellous’. where red bone marrow is located.
FUSED, FIBROUS OR IMMOVEABLE JOINTS
do not permit movement
articulating bones are fused together by fibrous ligaments
used to protect vital areas of the body
egs = fusion of flat bones in skull and irregular bones of sacrum and coccyx
SLIGHTLY MOVABLE OR CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
found at joints between sternum and ribs, between each vertebra of the spine (except sacrum and coccyx), and between the left and right side of pelvis
only permits small ranges of movement
dissipates stress and absorbs shock
FREELY MOVABLE OR SYNOVIAL JOINTS
most common type of joint
permits movement of limbs
6 types - each has unique bone structure that permits or restricts specific types of movement
HINGE, BALL AND SOCKET, PIVOT, GLIDING, CONDYLOID, SADDLE
similarities and differences between all
all have same key characteristics
HINGE (SYNOVIAL JOINT)
egs = knee and elbow, joint between phalanges (inter-phalangeal joint) of fingers and between toes
JOINT MOVEMENT = flexion and extension
PIVOT (SYNOVIAL JOINT)
two articulating bones that move around each other in a rotary manner.
egs = between the radius and ulna (radioulna)
between the cervical spine and the cranium (alanto-axial point)
JOINT MOVEMENT = rotation
BALL AND SOCKET (SYNOVIAL JOINT)
head or ball of one bone meets with cavity or socket of another
egs = shoulders, hip joints
permits more movement than any other synovial joints
JOINT MOVEMENTS = flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction and horizontal flexion and extension
GLIDING (SYNOVIAL JOINT)
almost flat articulating surfaces of a joint glide over each other in opposite directions
JOINT MOVEMENTS = flexion, extension, elevation and depression
CONDYLOID (SYNOVIAL JOINT
modified and shallower form of ball and socket joint - ball of the projecting bone is more oval shaped
egs = wrists and feet (between carpals and tarsals)
JOINT MOVEMENTS = flexion, extension, abduction and adduction and rotation
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
LIGAMENTS TENDONS JOINT CAPSULE ARTICULAR CARTILAGE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE SYNOVIAL FLUID
LIGAMENTS
connects two articulating bones of joint together and prevents unwanted movement
can adapt to overload placed on them - makes it thicker, stronger and better performing
made from dense inelastic regular collagen fibres = high tensile strength = high stability
but when damaged they are slow to heal ~ because of limited blood supply
JOINT CAPSULE
made from a dense, elastic, irregular collagen tissue (connective tissue)
provides space between the two articulating bones
in some cases provides joint with additional stability
TENDONS
located at ends of the muscle and attach the muscle on one side of a joint to a bone on the other side
main role to produce movement but also assist the ligament in the role of stabilising the joint
made of large volumes of thick, inelastic regular collagen tissue
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
lines inside of joint capsule
production of synovial fluid
when bones of joint move they produce heat and friction on membrane which simulates it to produce more synovial fluid
synovial membrane and joint capsule are often referred to as the same structure
SYNOVIAL FLUID
thick and sticky
acts as the lubricant of the joint
contains several vital nutrients that help nourish the cartilage and surrounding structures
collagen
fibrous protein tissue with incredibly high tensile (stretching) strength
CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENT
the terminology to describe movement of joints cannot be used to explain how a muscle functions.
eg = the bicep muscle cannot flex, extend, abduct or adduct but it can contract (shorten) which in-turn flexes the elbow
FLEXION/EXTENSION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
Flexion describes reduction of joint’s angle
sometimes incorrectly referred to as bending
extension describes increase of joint’s angle
both
flexion and extension may also occur in a horizontal plane and therefore described as ‘horizontal extension’ and ‘horizontal flexion’
undesirable movement = hyperextension ~ joint extended beyond its normal range of movement
LATERAL FLEXION/EXTENSION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
Flexion may also be performed at side of body and generally occurs from spine; defined as ‘lateral flexion’
lateral extension doesn’t truly exist because lateral flexion on one side will automatically result in lateral extension of the opposing side.
ABDUCTION/ADDUCTION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
abduction = any movement away from midline of body adduction = movement towards midline of body
CIRCUMDUCTION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
similar to rotation - but greater range of movement
creates a circular movement where end of limb produces larger movement than base/joint.
eg = circling arms or legs
ELEVATION/DEPRESSION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
elevation = vertical movement where joint is moved upwards
depression = reverse of elevation. created with movement in downwards direction
shoulder shrug = elevation
lowering = depression
ROTATION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
circular movement around a fixed point
one bone in joint will remain fixed and stable whilst other bone will manoeuvre around it
egs = head left to right, palms up and down
PLANTAR FLEXION/DORSI FLEXION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
exclusively at the ankle
toes are pointed down = plantar flexion
toes pulled back towards tibia = dorsi flexion
PRONATION AND SUPINATION (CLASSIFCATION OF MOVEMENT)
pronation = palms face down
supination = palms face up
action of supination and pronation occurs from joints in the forearm, one just below elbow and one just above the wrist
THE SPINAL REGIONS (HEAD TO BUM)
Cervical spine (7 vertebrae) Thoracic spine (12 vertebrae) Lumbar (5 vertebrae) Sacrum (5 fused vertebrae) Coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
CERVICAL SPINE
the vertebrae are the smallest in vertebrae column
anterior curvature
greatest mobility in spinal column
THORACIC SPINE
vertebrae expand entire upper back and curve towards rear.
a rib is attached to each vertebra
the lower two ribs (eleventh and twelfth) provide protection to rear and do not span the entire circumference of the thorax = referred to as floating ribs
LUMBAR SPINE
form an anterior curve
largest vertebrae, smallest range of movement
all bending and twisting will put strain on this region
SACRUM
vertebrae fused together to form triangular plate of bone
provides attachment for several muscles and assists in shock absorption
COCCYX
vertebrae fused together to form single piece of bone
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS
located between adjacent vertebrae
made mostly from cartilage and have liquid nucleus
primary function is to provide stiffness and stability by maintaining tension in spinal ligaments
also absorb shock
when excessively loaded the discs become dehydrated and spinal column loses height - spinal nerves are often compressed = pain and loss of fiction
Good posture
a state of muscular and skeletal balance which protects the supporting structures of the body using muscles efficiently. it affords effective and safe movement, creating optimum conditions for the function of bodily organs and systems
Static posture
the ability to maintain an optimal bodily alignment whilst in a single stationary position
if someone is unable to adopt an optimal static posture it is unlikely they will be able to maintain an optimal position during movement
Dynamic posture
differs from static because movement is present
not possible to describe one optimal dynamic posture because depends on combination of individual client factors and specificity of the activity/movement
posture commonly affected by
poor standing, sitting or walking incorrectly poor nutrition inactivity ~ muscle wasting illness/disease (arthritis) clothing (high heels) poorly designed furniture fatigue repetitive actions self esteem/physical wellbeing
Exercise and posture
any exercise performed poorly can have a negative effect on posture, similarly performed well can improve posture
greatest exercises = resistance training, flexibility/stretching, core stability
control is important when exercising to improve posture. performing exercises slowly with attention to joints and limbs is more likely to improve postural health
risks of poor posture
headaches lower back pain neck pain impaired breathing arthritis/spondylosis impaired balance reduced circulation altered organ function muscle imbalances loss of muscle strength
herniated disc/slipped disc
repeated bending and twisting activities involving spine place stress on intervertebral discs and weakens their fibrous outer wall - likelihood of nuclear fluid leaking at irritating surrounding nerves
Neutral spine
optimal spinal position
ensures all four spinal curves are maintained
from this position even pressure is placed across intervertebral discs which reduces likelihood of strain
adopting neutral spine
start in upright position, chest lifted and stomach slightly drawn in, hips feet distance apart, knees slightly bent, hips under shoulders
neutral spine in the middle of range from tilting pelvis anteriorly and posteriorly
3 Common Postural Disorders
KYPHOSIS ~ rounding of upper back and shoulders - exaggerated and excessive curvature of thoracic vertebrae
genetic factors or abnormal growth/maturation of spine
milder cases = poor postural awareness, sustained seat postures and overuse of the abdominal, pectoral and deltoid muscles
LORDOSIS ~ excessive and exaggerated curvature of the lumbar vertebrae
associated with poor postural awareness, prolonged seated postures, tight hip flexors, weak abs and hamstrings, pregnancy, overweight
SCOLIOSIS ~ excessive rotational and lateral curvature of spine
commonly affects thoracic region but can also affect cervical and lumbar regions
genetic factors or abnormal maturation of spine
mild forms = result of lifestyle ~ but less common
normally requires medical treatment and cannot usually be corrected from exercise alone
