Signals and Emissions Flashcards
Carriers and modulation: AM, FM, and single sideband; modulation envelope; digital modulation; overmodulation; link budgets and link margins
How is direct binary FSK modulation generated?
A. By keying an FM transmitter with a sub-audible tone
B. By changing an oscillator’s frequency directly with a digital control signal
C. By using a transceiver’s computer data interface protocol to change frequencies
D. By reconfiguring the CW keying input to act as a tone generator
B. By changing an oscillator’s frequency directly with a digital control signal
Hint: FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) = digital control
FSK is a method of rapidly changing the carrier frequency of a transmitter between two different frequencies. These two carrier frequencies are often referred to as the Mark frequency and the Space frequency, or simply Mark and Space. FSK is commonly used for RTTY (radioteletype) as well as ASCII-based transmissions like packet. Since there are only two frequencies to generate, a digital control signal is used. The terms digital, binary, ON-OFF, and two-state are all basically equivalent. This two-state control signal can be used to shift the frequency of an oscillator back and forth between a Mark frequency and a Space frequency. After appropriate amplification, the carrier signal generated by the oscillator can leave the transmitter to energize an antenna.
Quick and dirty mnemonic: “F”requency “S”ignal “K”ontrol.
Silly hint; the correct answer is the only one that has the word “direct” in the answer.
What is the name of the process that changes the phase angle of an RF signal to convey information?
A. Phase convolution
B. Phase modulation
C. Phase transformation
D. Phase inversion
B. Phase modulation
Phase modulation is the name of the process that changes the phase angle of an RF wave to convey information. Phase modulation changes the signal by modifying the instantaneous phase angle of the carrier. PM is often used for data transmission methods such as PSK (phase-shift keying).
What is the name of the process that changes the instantaneous frequency of an RF wave to convey information?
A. Frequency convolution
B. Frequency transformation
C. Frequency conversion
D. Frequency modulation
D. Frequency modulation
Hint: modulate CONVEYs & controls
Frequency modulation (FM) is the process which changes the frequency of an RF wave to convey information. The instantaneous frequency of the carrier is altered to convey the information, while the amplitude remains constant. FM is used for frequency-shift keying, radar in addition to radio voice transmissions.
What emission is produced by a reactance modulator connected to a transmitter RF amplifier stage?
A. Multiplex modulation
B. Phase modulation
C. Amplitude modulation
D. Pulse modulation
B. Phase modulation
Hint: PHASE MODULATION is produced by REACTANCE
Phase modulation is the emission produced by a reactance modulator connected to an RF power amplifier. The reactance modulator changes the instantaneous phase angle of the carrier, generating phase modulated signals.
Silly hint: The child REACTED because they were going through a PHASE.
What type of modulation varies the instantaneous power level of the RF signal?
A. Power modulation
B. Phase modulation
C. Frequency modulation
D. Amplitude modulation
D. Amplitude modulation
Hint: “Amplitude” is the power level of RF.
(D). Amplitude modulation (AM) is the type of modulation that varies the instantaneous power level of the RF signal. The power or signal strength of the wave is measured as the wave amplitude (may also be called the envelope).
Which of the following is characteristic of QPSK31?
A. It is sideband sensitive
B. Its encoding provides error correction
C. Its bandwidth is approximately the same as BPSK31
D. All these choices are correct
D. All these choices are correct
Hint: Quick Provide Sideband = ALL
QPSK31 stands for Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, 31-baud
From http://www.podxs070.com/frequently-asked-questions/introduction-to-psk, here’s an explanation of QPSK31: So what’s different about QPSK31?
The QPSK31 format transmits two bits per phase state, and transmits one of four phase states each time. (If you think about it, there are four possible combinations of two bits, and each of these combinations is assigned a unique phase.) This allows twice as many bits to be sent in the same period of time (and bandwidth) as with BPSK. Martinez coupled this with a rate-1/2, constraint length 5 convolutional code to improve the power efficiency of the modulation (defined as the signal-to-noise ratio required to deliver a specified bit-error-rate, or BER).
This adds a step in the transmission process - generation of the coded bitstream - after the insertion of fill bits. It also adds a corresponding step in the receive process. After the bits are recovered from the phase transition, a Viterbi decoder removes the redundancy inserted by the code, corrects bit errors (up to a point) and recovers the original bit stream for translation of the Varicode.
One interesting note is that while the BPSK31 signal is phase-symmetric, QPSK31 is not. This means that if you are using BPSK, it doesn’t matter if you are using USB or LSB - the signal is the same. If you are using QPSK, both stations must be using the same sideband, or one must use the “invert” function in their software.
Which of the following phone emissions uses the narrowest bandwidth?
A. Single sideband
B. Vestigial sideband
C. Phase modulation
D. Frequency modulation
A. Single sideband
For each part of the signal that is suppressed, the bandwidth will be reduced. By supressing the carrier and filtering the unwanted sideband, the typical bandwidth of a single-sideband signal is reduced to only about 3 kHz.
Which of the following is an effect of overmodulation?
A. Insufficient audio
B. Insufficient bandwidth
C. Frequency drift
D. Excessive bandwidth
D. Excessive bandwidth
Overmodulating the signal causes increased distortion or deviation of the waveform. This increases the formation of spurious emissions with distortion outside the normal bandwidth.
What type of modulation is used by FT8?
A. 8-tone frequency shift keying
B. Vestigial sideband
C. Amplitude compressed AM
D. 8-bit direct sequence spread spectrum
A. 8-tone frequency shift keying
Hint: FT8 means Frequency Tone 8. Bingo!
Silly Hint: It’s the only answer with 8 syllables.
FT8 uses 8 tone FSK (frequency shift keying) to encode time-sequenced digital data transmissions.
From http://physics.princeton.edu/pulsar/K1JT/Release_Notes_1.8.0.txt
Brief Description of the FT8 Protocol:
WSJT-X Version 1.8.0 includes a new mode called FT8, developed by K9AN and K1JT. The mode name “FT8” stands for “Franke and Taylor, 8-FSK modulation”. FT8 uses 15-second T/R sequences and provides 50% or better decoding probability down to -20 dB on an AWGN channel. An auto-sequencing facility includes an option to respond automatically to the first decoded reply to your CQ. FT8 QSOs are 4 times faster than those made with JT65 or JT9. FT8 is an excellent mode for HF DXing and for situations like multi-hop E_s on 6 meters, where deep QSB may make fast and reliable completion of QSOs desirable.
What is meant by the term “flat-topping,” when referring to an amplitude-modulated phone signal?
A. Signal distortion caused by insufficient collector current
B. The transmitter’s automatic level control (ALC) is properly adjusted
C. Signal distortion caused by excessive drive or speech levels
D. The transmitter’s carrier is properly suppressed
C. Signal distortion caused by excessive drive or speech levels
Flat-topping (or clipping) is where overmodulation causes a distortion of the waveform in which the amplitude appears flattened on the oscilloscope, because the maximum levels of output voltage or current are exceeded.
For more info see Wikipedia: Flat-topping or Clipping
(Hint: You will DRIVE faster when on FLAT ground.) {OR} You drive on a flattop slang for a road)
What is the modulation envelope of an AM signal?
A. The waveform created by connecting the peak values of the modulated signal
B. The carrier frequency that contains the signal
C. Spurious signals that envelop nearby frequencies
D. The bandwidth of the modulated signal
A. The waveform created by connecting the peak values of the modulated signal
Hint: Think of an envelope’s four corners, these would be the peak values.
In AM, the frequency is stable and only the amplitude modulates (Amplitude Modulation). When this happens, the carrier signal’s peak value will change during modulation. In FM, the signal’s peak value remains constant.
What is QPSK modulation?
A. Modulation using quasi-parallel to serial conversion to reduce bandwidth
B. Modulation using quadra-pole sideband keying to generate spread spectrum signals
C. Modulation using Fast Fourier Transforms to generate frequencies at the first, second, third, and fourth harmonics of the carrier frequency to improve noise immunity
D. Modulation in which digital data is transmitted using 0-, 90-, 180- and 270-degrees phase shift to represent pairs of bits
D. Modulation in which digital data is transmitted using 0-, 90-, 180- and 270-degrees phase shift to represent pairs of bits
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) modulation is a digital modulation technique used in communication systems to transmit data over radio waves or other transmission media.
In QPSK modulation, the information is encoded into four different phase states of the carrier signal. These phase states are 0 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, and 270 degrees. Each phase state represents a specific combination of two bits of data.
To transmit the data, the carrier signal’s phase is shifted to match the corresponding phase state of the data. By changing the phase of the carrier signal, the receiver can detect and decode the transmitted information.
QPSK modulation is widely used in various communication systems, including satellite communications, wireless networks, and digital television broadcasting. It is known for its efficiency in transmitting data and its ability to provide higher data rates compared to simpler modulation schemes.
Memory visualization: Think of a QPSK signal like an analog clock; 0, 90, 180, and 270 degrees would be 12, 3, 6, and 9 respectively. There are 4 characters in “QPSK” and 4 phases that the modulation is encoded into, matching the 4 “quarter hour” positions on a clock.
What is a link budget?
A. The financial costs associated with operating a radio link
B. The sum of antenna gains minus system losses
C. The sum of transmit power and antenna gains minus system losses as seen at the receiver
D. The difference between transmit power and receiver sensitivity
C. The sum of transmit power and antenna gains minus system losses as seen at the receiver
A “link” budget can be seen as a series (like “links” of a chain) of events that take place from a transmitter output to the receiver effecting power of signal. Therefore, to calculate the power at receiver we need to know what the power output is from transmitter, plus any gain from antenna such as Dipole 2.15dB, yagi etc, and then deduct any losses, such as distance signal travels, feed line at receiver, mismatched impedance etc, to come up with the final actual power of signal at receiver.
Silly hint: Both the “link budget” and “link margin” questions require math to be performed “at the receiver”, only the correct answers have all three words.
What is link margin?
A. The opposite of fade margin
B. The difference between received power level and minimum required signal level at the input to the receiver
C. Transmit power minus receiver sensitivity
D. Receiver sensitivity plus 3 dB
B. The difference between received power level and minimum required signal level at the input to the receiver
A receiver requires a minimum signal strength to operate effectively to enable signals to be heard (depending on manufacturers specifications). The difference in the minimum value needed by receiver, and the actual power level received is known as the “link” margin.
Hint: Margin = difference
Silly hint: Both the “link budget” and “link margin” questions require math to be performed “at the receiver”, only the correct answers have all three words.
Which mixer input is varied or tuned to convert signals of different frequencies to an intermediate frequency (IF)?
A. Image frequency
B. Local oscillator
C. RF input
D. Beat frequency oscillator
B. Local oscillator
Hint: the local oscillator is the TUNER (VFO) on your receiver
In the front end of a receiver, the incoming signal is at a fixed frequency. The only thing we have control over is the LO frequency. As this local oscillator is varied, a different incoming RF signal is mixed with it and presented to the IF. This facilitates “tuning” the radio to different RF frequencies.
What is the term for interference from a signal at twice the IF frequency from the desired signal?
A. Quadrature response
B. Image response
C. Mixer interference
D. Intermediate interference
B. Image response
In Software Defined Radios (SDRs), “image response” refers to interference that occurs when there is an unwanted signal present at a frequency that is double the Intermediate Frequency (IF) of the desired signal. The IF is a lower frequency to which the received radio signal is converted before further processing in an SDR.
The mixing process in an SDR can sometimes unintentionally create these interference signals at the double IF frequency. Image response interference can degrade the quality and clarity of the desired signal, making it harder to receive and interpret the intended communication.
Silly hint: I for IF, I for image. Also, since this is an SDR thing, you can remember images being transmitted by software.
What is another term for the mixing of two RF signals?
A. Heterodyning
B. Synthesizing
C. Frequency inversion
D. Phase inversion
A. Heterodyning
The heterodyning system uses a local HF oscillator, a mixer, and detector to modulate the carrier signal producing upper and lower sidebands.
Hint: Hetero means different or other like 2 different signals.
What is the stage in a VHF FM transmitter that generates a harmonic of a lower frequency signal to reach the desired operating frequency?
A. Mixer
B. Reactance modulator
C. Balanced converter
D. Multiplier
D. Multiplier
Hint: A harmonic has MULTIPLE sounds
The frequency multiplier is the stage in a VHF FM transmitter that generates a harmonic of a lower frequency signal to reach the desired operating frequency. The frequency multiplier produces signals at harmonic multiples (double, triple, etc) of the modulated signal to bring the frequency to the desired output level.
Which intermodulation products are closest to the original signal frequencies?
A. Second harmonics
B. Even-order
C. Odd-order
D. Intercept point
C. Odd-order
If the original frequencies are near each other, then the difference frequency is relatively close to DC (0). So the odd frequencies like 2f1 - f2 can be rewritten as f1 + (f1-f2), which is relatively close to f1.
Silly hint: Original -> Odd-Order or O O O it’s Magic, you know!
What is the total bandwidth of an FM phone transmission having 5 kHz deviation and 3 kHz modulating frequency?
A. 3 kHz
B. 5 kHz
C. 8 kHz
D. 16 kHz
D. 16 kHz
(fdev+fmod)×2=FM Bandwidth
To calculate the total bandwidth of an FM phone transmission, use Carson’s bandwidth rule by adding together the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency then multiplying the sum by 2:
BW=(fdev+fmod)×2
Where:
BW is the total FM phone bandwidth
fdev is the frequency deviation
fmod is the modulating frequency
So for this question:
fdev=5kHz
fmod=3kHz
Therefore:
BW=(5kHz+3kHz)×2
BW=8kHz×2
BW=16kHz
Memory aid: 5×3=15 and 16 is the closest
What is the frequency deviation for a 12.21 MHz reactance modulated oscillator in a 5 kHz deviation, 146.52 MHz FM phone transmitter?
A. 101.75 Hz
B. 416.7 Hz
C. 5 kHz
D. 60 kHz
B. 416.7 Hz
416.7 Hz is the frequency deviation for a 12.21 MHz reactance modulated oscillator in a 5-kHz deviation, 146.52 MHz FM phone transmitter.
To calculate the frequency deviation, first calculate the multiplication factor of the FM transmitter:
Multiplication Factor = (Transmitter Frequency) / (HF Oscillator Frequency)
= 146.52 MHz / 12.21 MHz = 12
Next, divide the transmitter deviation by the multiplication factor:
Frequency deviation = (Transmitter Deviation) / (Multiplication Factor)
=5 kHz / 12 = 5000 Hz / 12 = 416.7 Hz
Silly Hint: 146 think 416, and 146.52, so 5 + 2 = 7, and 416.7.
Alt: The standard FM deviation allowed is 5 KHz so, 5 ÷ 12 = 0.416 KHz, or 416 Hz
Alt: 5/150 simplifies to 1/30. 1/30th of 12 is 0.4
Why is it important to know the duty cycle of the mode you are using when transmitting?
A. To aid in tuning your transmitter
B. Some modes have high duty cycles that could exceed the transmitter’s average power rating
C. To allow time for the other station to break in during a transmission
D. To prevent overmodulation
B. Some modes have high duty cycles that could exceed the transmitter’s average power rating
Data modes vary in the percentage of time that they are actually transmitting at full power versus the amount of “off time” between signals. This is referred to as the duty cycle. As an example, the intermittant dots and dashes of CW mean that the transmitter is actually only operating at full power for somewhere around 40 to 50% of the time. Some of the RTTY data modes on the other hand, can actually run at full power for close to 100% of the transmission time. Because these modes have such high duty cycles, it may be necessary to reduce the power used so that the transmitter’s average power rating is not exceeded.
SILLY HINT: Do your “duty” “duty”
Why is it good to match receiver bandwidth to the bandwidth of the operating mode?
A. It is required by FCC rules
B. It minimizes power consumption in the receiver
C. It improves impedance matching of the antenna
D. It results in the best signal-to-noise ratio
D. It results in the best signal-to-noise ratio
Matching bandwidths reduces the amount of noise outside the desired frequency range.
Doing so means less energy is lost in filtering, resulting in a better signal-to-noise ratio.
What is the relationship between transmitted symbol rate and bandwidth?
A. Symbol rate and bandwidth are not related
B. Higher symbol rates require wider bandwidth
C. Lower symbol rates require wider bandwidth
D. Bandwidth is half the symbol rate
B. Higher symbol rates require wider bandwidth
The relationship between transmitted symbol rate and bandwidth is that higher symbol rates require higher amounts of bandwidth.
As the symbol rate for a data transmisson increases (baud rate), the amount of bandwidth required to send that signal must also increase in order to maintain a low signal-to-noise ratio.
Hint: More information requires more space.