Short Answers

Question 1

Explain the concepts of conditions of worth

Carl Rogers

Answer 1

• Perceived expectations and standards set by significant others, such as parents, peers, or partners, that individuals believe they must meet to receive love and acceptance.
• These conditions create a sense of value contingent upon meeting certain criteria, leading individuals to internalise these standards and evaluate themselves based on them.
• Over time, individuals assimilate these attitudes into their self-structure and begin to judge themselves based on these perceived expectations. Our perceptions of other people’s views of us are called external evaluations.
• This reliance on external validation can lead individuals to disregard their innate evaluations, resulting in incongruence and potential estrangement from their authentic selves.

Question 2

Modes of Existence by Rollo May

Umwelt

Answer 2

• Umwelt refers to the environment that surrounds us.
• It encompasses the world of objects and things.
• This environment would exist even without human awareness.
• Umwelt includes the world of nature and natural laws.
• It encompasses biological drives like hunger and sleep.
• Natural phenomena such as birth and death are part of Umwelt.

Question 3

Modes of Existence by Rollo May

Mitwelt

Answer 3

• Mitwelt refers to our relations with other people.
• It emphasizes relating to people as individuals, not as objects.
• Treating people as objects indicates living solely in Umwelt.
• The distinction between Umwelt and Mitwelt is exemplified by contrasting sex with love.
• Using someone solely for sexual gratification reflects living in Umwelt.
• Love entails committing to the other person and respecting their Dasein.

Question 4

Modes of Existence by Rollo May

Eigenwelt

Answer 4

• Eigenwelt refers to our relationship with ourselves.
• It involves self-awareness and understanding oneself as a human being.
• Living in Eigenwelt entails grasping one’s identity in relation to the world of objects and people.
• It involves questions such as What does this sunset mean to me? and How do I perceive this experience?

Question 5

Harry Stack Sullivan’s Notions of Tension

Needs

Answer 5

• Experiences are influenced by imbalances between ourselves and our environment, leading to recurring needs.
• Tenderness is highlighted as a crucial interpersonal need that persists from infancy to adulthood.
• Essential needs like oxygen, food, and water are fundamental for survival.
• Zonal needs, originating from specific body areas, contribute to the complex interaction between biology and interpersonal interactions in shaping our needs and experiences.

Question 6

Harry Stack Sullivan’s Notions of Tension

Anxiety

Answer 6

• Anxiety, characterized by its disjunctive and diffuse nature, lacks a consistent solution for relief.
• Sullivan proposes that parents transfer their anxiety to their children through empathy, perpetuating a cycle of emotional distress.
• In adulthood, anxiety becomes a significant barrier to forming healthy interpersonal relationships, impeding personal growth and development.
• Pervasive anxiety often leads to behaviors that obstruct learning from mistakes and perpetuate a longing for security reminiscent of childhood.
• Ultimately, this prevents individuals from evolving and gaining insight from their experiences.

Question 7

How does Roger’s actualising tendency reflect his concept of humanity?

Answer 7

• The actualizing tendency is a fundamental drive inherent in all living beings.
• It motivates individuals to fulfill their potential and capacities across various aspects of life.
• It encompasses both basic survival needs and the desire for growth and self-fulfillment.
• Individuals possess innate creative power to solve problems and shape their self-concepts.
• Fulfillment of this tendency is facilitated by supportive relationships characterized by congruence, empathy, and acceptance.
• Roger’s actualizing tendency reflects his concept of humanity by emphasising the inherent drive within all living beings to move towards fulfilment and actualization of their potential.
• He sees this tendency as the primary motive for human behaviour, encompassing the whole person - physiological, intellectual, emotional, conscious, and unconscious aspects.

Question 8

Describe the techniques that can be used to control another person’s behaviour according to Skinner.

Answer 8

• Society exercises control over its members through four main methods of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, adding aversive stimuli for punishment, and removing positive stimuli for punishment.
• Describing contingencies of reinforcement involves using language, such as threats or promises, to inform individuals about the consequences of their behavior.
• Advertising is a subtle form of social control aimed at manipulating people into purchasing specific products.
• Behavior can be controlled by either depriving individuals or satiating them with reinforcers, with control originating from the environment.
• Physical restraints, like holding children back from danger or imprisoning lawbreakers, are another method of control, countering the effects of conditioning and influencing behavior contrary to what would occur without restraint.