short answer Flashcards
Why include cultural issues in our study of human behaviour?
How should we include cultural factors?
Theoretical frameworks & their applications
Culture & Psychology - cultural foundation examines psychological processes & human behaviour, theoretical & methodological frameworks to account for cultural influences on mental processes & behaviour and how behaviour creates culture.
Research build and apply knowledge, most of American University students within individualistic framework. WEIRDOS (ethnocentric), not representative. Can reinforce stereotypes/disadvantage.
Is it true for all people?
Cross-Cultural research - tests compares knowledge & findings. Limitations.
Theoretical frameworks - Extreme relativism = human behaviour relevant to culture i..e local context (culture-specific)
Extreme Universalism = Human behaviour the same across cultures (universal)
Moderate Universalism = both, acknowledge researcher bias, cross-cultural psychology
What is culture?
How does it differ to concepts of society, race, nation & ethnicity
Unique meaning & information system, shared by a group across generations to meet survival needs, pursue happiness and meaning in life. Beliefs and practices of group.
Created by: group life, environments, resources, evolution.
Objective elements: food clothing
Subjective elements: values, beliefs, norms, attitudes, worldviews
Society = people who share beliefs and practices of culture.
Race = physical traits
Ethnicity = cultural identification
Nation = inhabiting particular country
Cross-cultural research methods:
How might cultural factors influence our approach to and conduct of research in psychology?
The questions we ask,
the research context, sampling,
bias and equivalence, language and translation,
interpretation of data/results
Research context - the lense through which study is designed/viewed.
Sampling, bias & equivalence. - is the research sample population representative, measures valid & reliable across cultures (psychometric equivalence), scores comparable across cultures (structural equivalence)
Operasationalisation - variable determined by researcher
Linguistic Bias - proficiency, back translation & translating qu/answ
Response bias = Greasy wheel (individual), nail gets hammered (collectivism)
Interpretation of data/results - Cultural attribution fallacy = making assumptions without empirical evidence
Defining Personality
Does the 5 factor model apply across cultures?
Are there other personality dimensions not captured by the 5 factor model?
Are there unique or culture-specific personality dimensions
Cognitive & behavioural characteristics that differ between people and are stable across time
Dispositional traits = traits, determined by biology/genetics, consistent (universal)
Personality identity = Cultural constructions, Our perceived roles, values & motivations. (culture-specific)
Integrative approach = both traits (universal) and identity. (culture specific)
National Character = Perception of average personality of people in different cultures
Five factor Model = Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraverted, Assertive, Neurotic
Kosta/Mcrae - Yes/abit of both, cross-cultural validity & universality.
1. Biological basis
2. Basic Tendencies (OCEAN)
3. Characteristic adaptations (cultural basis involvement provided and gives meaning to context, roles, goals, skills)
4. Self-concept & Objective Biography
5. External influences
(All dynamic in-between)
OTHER:
Interpersonal relatedness - chinese, harmony, relationship orientation.
Filipino - + temperament & self-assurance.
Japanese - Amae, sweet/passive dependence on each other.
Indigenous factors = Social curiosity & risk taking
Internal/external locus of control
Autonomy, competence & relatedness
Socially desirable responding could impact validity/bias (greasy wheel, nail)
Culture and Gender:
Sex Gender Sex Role Gender Role Sexual Orientation Gender Identity
what is the evidence for universality or difference in the following? (men & women)
a. Masculinity and Femininity
b. Cognitive ability
c. Division of Labour
Sex = biological, reproductive system
Gender = behaviour pattern culturally acceptable
Sex Role = behaviour/pattern of activities
Gender role = Gender-specific role for culture
Gender identity = awareness of adopting gender role
Sexual orientation = which gender they are attracted to, heterosexual/homosexual
a. Does differ.
Degree culture Encourage differences between males/females. Different psychological outcomes/behaviours.
Hostede:
Masculine = moralistic attitudes, double standards (virgins), passive roles women, traditional/religious, sexist ideologies promote inequality. Less developed.
(Japan»Norway)
b.
Don’t differ across cultures.
Men = Spatial/Maps, Women = Comprehension.
Small/declining cross culturally.
Berry - Inuit Culture in Canada, Spatial abilities adaptive in survival.
Tight - Agricultural based, males spatial tasks better
Loose - nomadic/hunter/gatherer, women spatial tasks.
Ability is adaptive in broader context.
c. Universal. Georges et al. 2006. Women more housework everywhere. Mens priorities: Financial, Expressive, Childcare. Women priority: Childcare. (affluent countries all 3)
Culture, Gender Roles & Stereotypes
Why are gender stereotypes universal?
Gender role ideology & Self-concept
Persistent Inequality
Williams (word association) - Many universal gender stereotypes
Men = Strength, activity, dominance ECO
Why?
1. Biological/Reproductive differences > Division of Labour > Differences in behaviour and Psychological Characteristics
(Evolutionary/Adaptive Advantages)
- Social Inequalities = Socialisation reinforced stereotypes
Gender role ideology = How men/women should be
- traditional»_space; equality
Self-concept = Men masculine, women feminine across cultures BUT ideal self is more masculine for both
Persistent inequality
Boys favourism
Sexual violence
Women oppression (education, rights, double standards)
Culture differences in
Attention & Perception
Attention/Perception:
Holistic perception = Context dependent, eastern cultures (More background, Japan)
Analytical perceptions = Context independent, western.
Optical illusions
Mueller-Lyer - Lines/Arrows, longer line pointing in, (Fools industrialised groups)
Horizontal-vertical perpendicular = vertical line longer (fools none-industrialised)
Carpentered world theory = Industrialised cultures rectangles and squares
The ponzu = lines look further away (road)
Font-horizontal foreshortening theory = vertical lines moving away
Representing 3d in 2d. Western cultures look in 2d paper interpret as 3d.
HUDSON - Bantu people thought hunting elephant, depth perception & education on european cultures.
Depth perception, education , physiology and Motivation.
Cultural differences in Cognition
Cultural Dimensions
Individualism = Western = Analytical perceptions
Collectivism = Easter = Holistic Perceptions
Social Orientation Hypotheses:
Independent = autonomy, 1-dimension
Interdependent = Connections, context
Education systems:
Eastern - teach/rope learning
Western - Active learning/discussion
language genes environments cultural dimensions values and goals
How does Culture Affect Temperament?
Babys temperament = easy, difficult, slow to warm (Biologically based + Experience/Environment)
Dimensions = Active (Smile/Laugh), Shyness (Behavioural Inhibitions)
Behavioural Inhibitions = holding back, shyness (America = Bad/anxious, China = Good/Mature)
Goodness of fit = if temperament is linked to parents, environment, culture. Positive development. Can change with time.
(Masai infants, being “difficult” may get more food for survival)
Temperamental style results in learning differences, social experiences and behaviours/personalities/worldviews.
Sources of temperament = environment
Cultural practices during pregnancy and after birth.
nature & nurture = developmental contextualism (socialisation)
Universal & Culture Specific development pathways.
How does culture effect Cognitive reasoning?
Piagets stages (piagets tasks) of development (universal?) – Same order across cultures, progression varies across cultures, cultural variability within stages , intelligence vs emotional intelligence.
o Sensory – Preoperational (language, conservation) – Operational (thinking objects) – Formal Operational (Think abstract). Fourth stage requires schooling/context
o Vygotskys Sociocultural theory – Alternative piaget, cognitive development, dependent on context (”everyday” socialising agents). Inseparable from culture. 100-33=? Social/cultural/historical generational success
Zone of proximal development = gap between actual development of child vs potential developmental level with help from others (Scaffolding agents)
Moral reasoning? How do children’s views of morality develop?
Heavily influences by what subjective/implicit culture it comes from, basis of laws
ANS: Kohlbergs model of moral reasoning/stages of morality (influenced western thought):
Based on Piaget work, US influence
Pre-morality – compliance, rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards, obedience orientation, Hedonistic Orientation
Conventional Morality – conformity to rules set by society, interpersonal concordance orientation, law and order
Post-conventional – Moral reasoning/individual priciples and conscience, Social contract or legalistic orientation
First 2 stages cross-cultural
Alternative: Three ethics of moral reasoning – autonomy (individual rights/justice), community (interpersonal relationships), divinity (spiritual beliefs)
Attachment?
Bond between parent/child that provides emotional security
Bowlby – Smiling/Cute to attach for survival
Ainsworth Secure, ambivalent and avoidant.
Strange situation task (measure attachment) - Mother leaves, baby cries, stranger comes but comforted easily when mother back (secure) Meaning of separation differs across cultures (Japanese rarely separate so the meaning could be different, innapropriate/intrusive parenting may be seen as “guiding”)
KELLER Three models:
Psychological autonomy – Emotional Security with parents, baby’s autonomous
Hierarchical Relatedness – Emotional Security through commiunity
Hybrid – both parents and community
gg. Cultural differences in concepts of health and illness
Western = Biomedical model – specific cause i.e. pathogen or genetic abnormality.
statistically aberrant, violate social norms, adverse effects on person (subjective distress).
Biopsychosocial mode – not only biological, need psychological and social aspects, not widely accepted.
Chinese = yin and yang (negative and positive energies), balance = good health. Holistic view of health.
Homeostasis.
Life expectancy, infant mortality, subjective wellbeing
DSM-5 updated for cultures (cultural concepts of distress) :
Idioms – cultural ways of communicating/expressing distress, somaticization aches, numbness. Thoughts/behaviours/emotions.
Syndromes – patterns of symptoms clustered together
Explanations of distress – explain why symptoms are occurring
Cultural influences on health – Genetics, lifestyle/behaviour, attitude/beliefs, health care, environment
Overpathologizing – clinician unaware of clients cultural background.
Cultural relativism – disorders understood in the cultural framework within which they occur
hh. WHO studies on schizophrenia and depression – evidence for universality
Schiz – universal, common symptoms across cultures (hallucinations, delusions).
Rates vary across cultures
WHO – lack of insight, auditory/verbal dellusions.
Other studies – some differences in manifestations and experiences of Schiz in cultures.
Depression:
Universal symptoms - loss of sleep/enjoyment,
difference in rates - higher in western soceties
More common in women then men (across cultures etc)
Also culture-specific ways in which expressed/experienced across cultures
Universal: loss appetite, hopeless, suicide ideas),
Culture specific (Chinese) : embodied emotions - no separation of body and mind experience them connected
no social harmony with social relationshops/family/work
insomnia is cause of depression
ADHD also looked at
- Core symptoms inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity. Boys > girls, cause/treatment vary
Behavioural and contextual manifestations of disorders vary in cultures
