SHHS Language Change all areas Flashcards
What is diachronic change?
The historical development of language over time.
What is synchronic change?
The study of language change at a particular moment in time.
What is prescriptivism?
The notion that language should be fixed, prescribing to a set standard of rules for language usage, with any shift away from these rules or standards being seen as incorrect.
What is descriptivism?
Where no judgement or negative attitude is imposed on language change, but an examination of language as it is and how it is used.
In Samuel Johnson’s preface to his 1755 Dictionary of the English language he claimed what?
‘Tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration.’
What does Henry Hitchings claim in ‘The Language Wars: A History of Proper English’ state?
‘Rather than thinking of this (language change) as degeneration, we can see the diversity of languages in a different way: as permitting through its richness greater possibilities for creativity and adaptability.’
Define ‘Old English’
Language used in England around 5th Century. English developed from speech of Angles, Jutes and Saxons (Anglo-Saxon). Also significant: Viking raids which began in 793. Latin also hugely influential at this time.
Define ‘Middle English’
Language in England around 11th Century. Norman invasion 1066. French became the language of the court and administration, while Latin remained important for written documentation, especially by the church.
Define ‘Early Modern English’
15th Century. Caxton introduced the printing press from Europe (1476). Printed many works in English, helping to contribute to the establishment of a standard form of English, using South East dialect as basis for this new standard.
Define ‘Modern English’
18th Century. English language growing at an incredible rate. Words borrowed from Latin, Greek and around the world. Grammarians start to establish ‘rules’ and lexicographers attempt to fix meanings of words.
Define ‘Present Day English’
20th Century. English has continued to develop and the influence of the media, technology and travel has helped to establish English as a global language.
Why did Latin have such a significant influence on English?
Early Roman settlement in AD 43, to renewed focus on Latin in religious, intellectual and cultural contexts throughout the linguistic periods.
What are ‘borrowings’?
Words taken from other languages and incorporated into the English lexicon.
What caused the emergence of presciptivist ideas?
1700s. The rapid expansion of the lexicon, as a result of borrowings from other countries, led to some believing that the language needed to be fixed.
What effect did the British Empire have on our language?
English began to draw heavily on languages from around the world - from India, Africa and other countries under British rule.
What effect did the Industrial Revolution have on language?
Huge migration from the countryside into cities to work in factories. Emergence of the ‘middle classes’. Language began to be seen as a marker of social identity, which led to the heightened prestige of Standard English.
What factors affect change?
Migration; the impact of wars and invasions; scientific developments; travel; technological developments; the global economy; American English
Some internal factors of language change?
We adapt existing words by modifying them - e.g. blending, compounding
External factors of language change?
We borrow ‘loan’ words from other languages
What do we call new words?
Neologisms or coinage
Coinage/neologism?
The deliberate creation of a new word. This is not a common process of word formation
Borrowings/loan words?
Borrowing of words/concepts from other languages. Words are either anglicised (so that we no longer recognise them as loan words) or they may retain their original spelling or phonology, e.g. ‘bungalow’ from Hindi
Compounding?
Words are combined together to form new words. These can be open, hyphenated or solid, e.g. ‘handheld’, ‘user-friendly’
Clipping?
Words are shortened and the shortened form becomes the norm, e.g. ‘perambulator’ becomes ‘pram’, ‘omnibus’ becomes ‘bus’
Blending?
A combination of clipping and compounding: words are abbreviated and joined together to form a new word, e.g. ‘moped’ comes from ‘motor and pedal’
Acronym?
First letters are taken from a series of words to create a new term, e.g. NATO, AIDS
Initialism?
The first letters from a series of words form a new term, but each letter is pronounced, e.g. CD, OMG, MP3
Affixation?
One or more free morphemes are combined with one or more bound morphemes. Most common ones are suffixes and prefixes, e.g. ‘disinterest’, ‘sexism’, ‘postnatal’
Conversion or functional shift?
A word shifts from one word class to another, usually from a noun to a verb, e.g. ‘google’ becomes ‘googled’
Eponym?
Names of a person or company are used to define particular objects. Often they are the inventors or distributors of the object, e.g. ‘Wellington, as in Lord Wellington’
Back formation?
A verb is created from an existing noun by removing a suffix, e.g. ‘locate’ from ‘location’ (traditionally, verbs are created first and nouns come from these)
What was ‘The Inkhorn Controversy’?
During 16-17th centuries, there was a growing pride in the mother tongue. Writers of the Renaissance began to expand the vocabulary by coining new words, or borrowing from classical languages such as Latin and Greek. These so-called ‘inkhorn terms’ were considered pretentious and artificial - some believed they would ‘corrupt’ the English language.
Where does the term ‘inkhorn terms’ come from?
Thomas Wilson, 1553, ‘The Art of Rhetorique’ referred to ‘straunge ynkehorne termes’ (the inkhorn was a vessel for carrying ink - it became a symbol of authorial self-importance). They enabled creativity - Shakespeare is said to have introduced over 1700 ‘new’ words.
What did Jonathan Swift publish in 1712?
‘A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining The English Tongue’
What were Jonathan Swift’s main concerns about English in the 1700s?
Vagueness in language or ‘the poverty of conversation’; shortened words; unnecessary contractions (e.g. disturb’d); unnecessary polysyllabic words which made meaning unclear; invented words or neologisms
First major dictionary?
Samuel Johnson 1755
Evidence of Samuel Johnson as a descriptivist?
In his preface to his dictionary he claimed ‘no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding, and some falling away.’
What is ‘change from above’?
A conscious attempt by those in positions of authority to impose a ‘correct’ form of language on users.
What is ‘change from below’?
When language users adapt language to suit a particular need. With repeated usage, the change enters the language without comment as users are not consciously aware of it.
What is semantic change?
Shifts in meanings of existing words
What is neosemy?
Words acquiring new meanings - neosemy is the process
What is amelioration?
When a word’s meaning moves from fairly negative semantics to more positive, e.g. ‘pretty’ used to mean sly or cunning, now means attractive
What is pejoration?
When a word’s meaning takes on more negative semantics, e.g. ‘silly’ used to mean happy, now means foolish
What is broadening/generalisation?
A word retains its old meaning but broadens to take on added meanings, e.g. ‘place’ used to refer to a broad street, now refers to any area
