lang change theory

Question 1

evidence to support functional theory

Answer 1

Words move in/out due to change in society. The words vinyl and chronometer are NOT used today. Neologisms/broadened words such as avatar, troll and hashtag due to social medi

Question 2

Chen’s s-curve model

Answer 2

language change can occur at a slow pace creating the initial curve of the ‘s’ and then increases speed as it becomes more common and accepted into the language. This can then slow down again and level out once it has fully integrated into the language and is widely used.

Question 3

substratum theory

Answer 3

Different forms of language/different languages come into contact with English and affect how it changes. Non-native speakers mostly instigate this change. When English is learnt ‘imperfectly’ these imperfections are passed on down the generations/through contact via trade/invasion/ social networking/immigration

Question 4

substratum theory
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Answer 4

Different forms of language/different languages come into contact with English and affect how it changes. Non-native speakers mostly instigate this change. When English is learnt ‘imperfectly’ these imperfections are passed on down the generations/through contact via trade/invasion/ social networking/immigration

Question 5

hallidays functional theory

Answer 5

language always changes and adapts to the needs of the users - language therefore has a functional purpose. Changes in technology/industry often fuel the need for new words.

Question 6

david crystal tide model

Answer 6

Suggests that language is like a tide - constantly changing. It ebbs and flows, bringing in new words and taking out others in a natural, progressive way. Crystal claims that changes are not for the worse, or for the better. Language ‘just changes,’ he says.

Question 7

sapir whorf theory - reflectionism and determinsim

Answer 7

Reflectionism - a person’s language reflects their way of thinking
Determinism - language can determine the way in which people think/view the world

Question 8

What is ‘random fluctuation’?

Answer 8

Some linguists believe that the conventions of a language are learned by interacting with other users of the language, and that change can be a random and unpredictable process

Question 9

What is ‘ease of articulation’?

Answer 9

Linguists believe the creation of a more streamlined and efficient language is the most important motivating force behind language change. This is not simply ‘lazy’ or ‘sloppy’ lnaugaeg usage but a way of making language more fluent and flow more clearly

Question 10

Bishop Robert Lowth Grammar rules

Answer 10

• The pronoun ‘thou’ should no longer be used
• There should be differentiation between ‘will’ (a promise or threat) and ‘shall’ (to foretell)
• There should be a differentiation among ‘who’ and ‘which’ or ‘that

Question 11

What was the effect of grammar guides/prescriptivism in 18th and 19th centuries?

Answer 11

Change in written style of 1700s and 1800s. Writing became elaborate, overly rhetorical and sometimes pompous. Correct usage of ‘good’ grammar began to be associated with social status. ‘Bad’ grammar was criticised and seen as an indicator of lower social status or low morality.

Question 12

What was Haugen’s (1966) four-stage process of standardisation?

Answer 12

What was Haugen’s (1966) four-stage process of standardisation?

A
1) Selection: language variety selected from prestigious one
2) Codification: establishment of norms of lexis, grammar, spelling
3) Elaboration: selected language is developed for a variety of purposes
4) Implementation: now standard language given currency by making texts available in it, encouraging pride and loyalty by users

Question 13

Donald Mackinnon (1996) observed what attitudes towards language change?

Answer 13

Language can be seen as:

correct or incorrect
pleasant or ugly
socially acceptable or socially unacceptable
morally acceptable

Question 14

What is assimilation

Answer 14

Sounds that are adjacent to each other ‘become similar’, with one sound moving towards the other to make pronunciation simpler, e.g. we tend to pronounce ‘handbag’ as ‘hamba

Question 15

Johnathon Swift

Answer 15

‘A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining The English Tongue’ 1712
Vagueness in language or ‘the poverty of conversation’; shortened words; unnecessary contractions (e.g. disturb’d); unnecessary polysyllabic words which made meaning unclear; invented words or neologisms

Question 16

Evidence of Samuel Johnson as a descriptivist?

Answer 16

In his preface to his dictionary he claimed ‘no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding, and some falling away.’