Shared Intentionality & Common Ground

Question 1

Define “common ground” in the context of language and communication.

Answer 1

Common ground refers to the shared knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that participants in a conversation rely on to communicate effectively.

Question 2

Why is common ground important for successful communication?

Answer 2

It allows speakers and listeners to make inferences about each other’s intentions, ensuring that messages are understood as intended.

Question 3

What are the two types of common ground described by Clark?

Answer 3

The two types are personal common ground and communal common ground.

Question 4

What is personal common ground?

Answer 4

Personal common ground is the shared knowledge and experiences between individuals based on their direct interactions.

Question 5

What is communal common ground?

Answer 5

Communal common ground is the shared knowledge and assumptions within a larger community or culture.

Question 6

How do speakers establish common ground during a conversation?

Answer 6

Speakers establish common ground through direct interaction, referencing shared experiences, and using language that assumes shared knowledge.

Question 7

What role does context play in establishing common ground?

Answer 7

Context helps define what information is shared and relevant, guiding participants in how to interpret and respond to each other.

Question 8

What is the “principle of least collaborative effort” mentioned by Clark?

Answer 8

This principle states that speakers and listeners aim to minimize the effort needed to achieve mutual understanding.

Question 9

Give an example of how common ground affects language choice.

Answer 9

A speaker might choose more specific or technical terms when talking to someone with shared expertise, assuming mutual understanding of the terminology.

Question 10

How does common ground influence the development of language in children?

Answer 10

Children learn to use and interpret language by building on shared experiences and knowledge with their caregivers and peers.

Question 11

What are grounding acts in conversation?

Answer 11

Grounding acts are verbal or non-verbal behaviors that confirm mutual understanding, such as nodding or saying “I see.”

Question 12

How do misunderstandings affect common ground?

Answer 12

Misunderstandings indicate a breakdown in common ground, requiring participants to repair communication by clarifying or re-establishing shared knowledge.

Question 13

What methods do speakers use to repair communication and re-establish common ground?

Answer 13

Speakers may repeat, rephrase, provide additional context, or explicitly check for understanding to repair communication.

Question 14

Explain the concept of “presupposition” in relation to common ground.

Answer 14

Presupposition involves assumptions speakers make about what listeners already know, based on their common ground.

Question 15

How do social relationships influence common ground?

Answer 15

Social relationships determine the extent of shared experiences and knowledge, affecting how easily common ground can be established.

Question 16

What is the significance of shared activities in establishing common ground?

Answer 16

Shared activities provide a basis for mutual knowledge and understanding, facilitating more effective communication.

Question 17

How do cultural norms and practices contribute to communal common ground?

Answer 17

Cultural norms and practices provide a framework of shared expectations and knowledge that guide communication within a community.

Question 18

In what ways do speakers adjust their language based on the perceived common ground with their audience?

Answer 18

Speakers adjust their language by choosing appropriate vocabulary, level of detail, and references based on what they believe the audience knows.

Question 19

How does the concept of common ground extend to non-verbal communication?

Answer 19

Non-verbal cues, such as gestures and facial expressions, rely on common ground for their meaning and interpretation in context.

Question 20

What is the main argument of Tomasello and Moll in “The gap is social: Human shared intentionality and culture”?

Answer 20

The main argument is that the key difference between humans and other primates lies in our ability for shared intentionality, which is fundamental to human culture and social structures.

Question 21

Define “shared intentionality” according to Tomasello and Moll.

Answer 21

Shared intentionality refers to the capacity to share psychological states with others, including intentions, goals, and attention.

Question 22

How does shared intentionality contribute to human culture?

Answer 22

Shared intentionality allows for complex cooperation, communication, and the creation and transmission of cultural norms, knowledge, and practices.

Question 23

What are the two types of intentionality in the context of communication?

Answer 23

The two types are individual intentionality (individuals acting based on their own goals and intentions) and shared intentionality (individuals acting together with a shared goal).

Question 24

How do Tomasello and Moll describe the role of joint attention in shared intentionality?

Answer 24

Joint attention is the foundation of shared intentionality, where individuals focus on the same object or event and are aware of each other’s focus, enabling coordinated actions and communication.

Question 25

Why is the concept of “we-intentionality” important in the study of human social behavior?

Answer 25

“We-intentionality” refers to the shared sense of “we” in a group, which is crucial for collective activities and understanding of shared goals and intentions.

Question 26

What evidence do Tomasello and Moll provide to show the uniqueness of human shared intentionality?

Answer 26

The authors point to experimental studies showing that even the closest primate relatives, such as chimpanzees, do not exhibit the same level of shared intentionality as humans, especially in cooperative tasks and communication.

Question 27

How does shared intentionality develop in human children according to Tomasello and Moll?

Answer 27

Shared intentionality develops through social interactions with caregivers, where children learn to participate in joint attention and collaborative activities, gradually understanding shared goals and perspectives.

Question 28

What role does language play in shared intentionality and culture?

Answer 28

Language is both a product and a tool of shared intentionality, allowing for complex communication, the expression of shared goals, and the transmission of cultural knowledge.

Question 29

How do cultural practices influence the development of shared intentionality?

Answer 29

Cultural practices provide structured opportunities for individuals to engage in joint activities, learn communal norms, and develop the cognitive skills necessary for shared intentionality.

Question 30

Describe the concept of “normativity” in the context of shared intentionality.

Answer 30

Normativity refers to the understanding and adherence to social norms and rules that arise from shared intentionality, guiding behavior and expectations in a community.

Question 31

What distinction do the authors make between human and non-human primate social cognition?

Answer 31

Human social cognition is characterized by the ability to understand and engage in shared intentionality, whereas non-human primates primarily operate based on individual intentionality without the same level of mutual understanding and cooperation.

Question 32

How does the ability for shared intentionality impact human cooperation?

Answer 32

Shared intentionality allows humans to engage in highly coordinated and complex cooperative behaviors, which are essential for building and maintaining social institutions and cultural artifacts.

Question 33

What is the significance of the “ratchet effect” in cultural evolution?

Answer 33

The ratchet effect refers to the cumulative nature of cultural evolution, where innovations are preserved and built upon over generations, made possible by shared intentionality and communication.

Question 34

How do Tomasello and Moll’s ideas challenge previous theories of human cognition and culture?

Answer 34

Their emphasis on shared intentionality highlights the social basis of human cognition and culture, contrasting with theories that focus solely on individual cognitive abilities or environmental factors.

Question 35

Explain how shared intentionality contributes to the development of moral understanding.

Answer 35

Shared intentionality involves recognizing and respecting others’ perspectives and intentions, which forms the basis for understanding fairness, empathy, and moral norms.

Question 36

What implications do Tomasello and Moll’s findings on shared intentionality have for understanding the evolution of human societies?

Answer 36

The findings suggest that the evolution of human societies is deeply rooted in our unique capacity for shared intentionality, enabling the development of complex social structures and cultural traditions.

Question 37

What role does perspective-taking play in shared intentionality?

Answer 37

Perspective-taking is crucial for shared intentionality, as it allows individuals to understand and anticipate others’ intentions, facilitating effective communication and cooperation.

Question 38

Summarize the main conclusion of Tomasello and Moll’s chapter on shared intentionality and culture.

Answer 38

The main conclusion is that shared intentionality is the cornerstone of human social and cultural life, distinguishing humans from other primates and enabling the development of complex social behaviors and cultural phenomena.