Sexual Ethics

Question 1

The three main Christian approaches to sexual ethics

Answer 1

Conservative Christianity: Biblical teachings & traditional theologians.

Natural moral law: typically a conservative catholic view.

Liberal Christianity: the bible is not the literal word of God so we need to update Christian ethics for modern times. Fletcher’s situation ethics is an example of this.

Question 2

The two main secular approaches to sexual ethics

Answer 2

Conservative secularists: the traditions regarding sexual ethics are useful for our society and so we should maintain them. Kantian ethics can be interpreted as an example of this.

Liberal secularists: the traditions regarding sexual ethics might have been useful in the past but are increasingly outdated and harmful. Utilitarianism is an example of this.

Question 3

St Augustine on Sexual Desire and Original Sin

Answer 3

Augustine references Genesis, where Adam and Eve’s disobedience led to their awareness of nakedness and shame.

He argues that shame over nakedness and lust is just, as they result from humanity’s fallen state (original sin).

Augustine believes this shame is universal, with all cultures covering up genitals and keeping sex private.
He concludes that humanity is a “massa damnata” (mass of the damned) due to original sin.

Question 4

Biblical teachings: Traditional Conservative Views

Answer 4

The Bible is considered the perfect word of God. All sex outside of heterosexual marriage is condemned.

Question 5

Biblical teachings: Homosexuality

Answer 5

St. Paul condemns “sodomites” in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy.

Leviticus 20:13 calls homosexual acts an “abomination” punishable by death.

Jesus affirms that marriage is between a man and a woman (Matthew 19:4-6).

Question 6

Biblical teachings: Pre/Extra-marital Sex

Answer 6

Humans are born with original sin, leading to sinful sexual desires (Galatians 5).

The Bible teaches that sex should only occur within marriage (Exodus 20:14 - “Thou shalt not commit adultery”).

Jesus also condemns lustful thoughts (Matthew 5:28).

Question 7

Liberal Christian Views on Sexual Ethics

Answer 7

Rejection of Conservative Views: Liberal Christians argue the Bible is not the perfect word of God, but a product of human interpretation.

Historical and Literary Analysis: The Bible contains scientific and historical inaccuracies and reflects the cultural context of its human authors.

Reinterpretation: The Bible requires continual reinterpretation to remain relevant. Passages that reflect discriminatory or violent cultures can be ignored.

Acceptance of Homosexuality: Liberal Christians are more accepting of homosexuality and gay marriage, placing less emphasis on sex being confined to marriage.

Crisis of Authority: Critics argue that liberal Christianity leads to a crisis of authority, as the Bible’s human influence leads to individual interpretations, causing disunity within the faith.

Question 8

Criticism of Liberal Christianity

Answer 8

Traditional Christians criticize liberal Christianity for giving individuals too much freedom to interpret the Bible, leading to a lack of consistency and a fragmented theology.

Question 10

Situation ethics on sexual ethics

Answer 10

Situation ethics holds that an action is good if it leads to the most loving outcome possible. This will depend on the situation.

So, if acts involving homosexuality or pre/extra marital sex involve consent and those involved are happy, it seems that the outcome is loving and therefore those acts would be morally good.

However, if manipulation was involved in persuading people into such acts, then the outcome would not be loving, and it would be wrong.

Fletcher points to the example of adultery, often thought absolutely wrong. He explains the case of a mother trapped in a prison work camp during a war. The only conditions of release are either disease or pregnancy, so she asked a guard to impregnate her, thus committing adultery.

She was released, her family ‘thoroughly approved’ of her action and loved the resulting child as their own. The implication is that wrongness is not absolute, it depends on the situation.

Question 11

Natural law on sexual ethics

Answer 11

Natural law asserts that God created everything with a purpose (telos), and following this natural law leads to flourishing and ultimate happiness by glorifying God.

Actions against God’s natural law are not only sinful but also harmful to human happiness and well-being.

This has led to critiques of sex outside of marriage as detrimental to happiness.

Question 12

Natural Law on Homosexuality

Answer 12

Aquinas’s View: He considered homosexuality unnatural because it diverged from the natural mode of sex, which he believed should lead to reproduction.

Catechism of the Catholic Church: Claims homosexuality goes against natural law as it separates sex from procreation, thus opposing God’s design.

Pope Benedict XVI: Argued that although homosexual inclination itself is not a sin, it leads to intrinsic moral evil and is disordered.

Stephen Fry’s Response: He criticised religious views that stigmatise homosexuality, claiming it leads to harmful consequences like bullying and suicide among gay teens.

Augustine’s View: “Love the sinner, hate the sin” – Many Christians argue that only homosexual acts are sinful, not the orientation itself.
Bishop Barron’s View: Emphasises that gay people are beloved by God and invited to share in divine life, despite their sexual orientation being considered sinful.

Christopher Hitchens’ Critique: He rejected the argument that homosexuals are condemned only for their actions, claiming they are condemned for their nature. He criticised the Church for its homophobia and moral authority due to scandals like the priest abuse crisis.

Question 13

Natural Law on Pre/Extra-marital Sex

Answer 13

Natural law emphasises following God’s natural law and understanding the telos of our desires, including the desire to reproduce, educate, and protect human life.

Aquinas argued that sexual acts should be confined to marriage, as marriage is the only institution that ensures children are raised in an orderly, educational, and supportive environment.

Pre-marital and extra-marital sex are seen as wrong because they undermine these primary precepts and threaten the stability of society.

Question 14

Fletcher’s Critique of Aquinas

Answer 14

Cross-cultural Moral Disagreement: Fletcher argues that there is no universal natural law because different societies have conflicting moral views, especially regarding sexual ethics. This suggests that humans may not have a universal ability to discern the primary precepts.

Cross-cultural Similarities: While there are similarities (e.g., the importance of marriage), these could be due to practical necessities for child-rearing, especially in historically economically deprived societies.

Question 15

Secular Views on Sexual Ethics: Freud’s Influence

Answer 15

Freud’s Influence: Freud, though conservative in some aspects, influenced secular liberal views on sex.

He argued that traditional Christian attitudes towards sex caused shame and unhealthy repression, leading to mental illness.

Question 16

Liberal Secular Attitude

Answer 16

Sex is seen as a natural biological desire that should not be a source of shame but a path to well-being.

Augustine’s view of lust as shameful is rejected; secular views argue sexual desire is a natural evolutionary trait, not a result of original sin.

Question 17

Critique of Religious Views

Answer 17

Religious sexual repression is seen as unnecessary, stemming from insecurity over a mythical fall from grace.

Historically, strict sexual laws might have been needed when humans were less socialised, but modern humans are seen as capable of more freedom.

Question 18

Progression in Society

Answer 18

Despite traditional fears that sexual liberalisation would harm society, secular views argue that society has improved with greater sexual freedom.

Question 19

Oversexualisation of Society

Answer 19

While secular society embraces sexual freedom, it is criticised for being oversexualised, especially in youth culture.
Hook-up culture, which reduces sex to a status symbol, commodifies sex, harms self-esteem, and complicates meaningful relationships.

Question 20

Bishop Barron’s Critique

Answer 20

Secular culture’s lack of moral and ethical context for sex leads to a self-centered attitude, fostering a “deep sadness” and psychological harm.

Question 21

Concerns about Lack of Balance

Answer 21

Some argue that without restrictions, human nature could slide into selfishness and oversexualisation, which traditional Christian views suggest must be controlled.

Question 22

Act Utilitarianism on sexual ethics

Answer 22

Judges actions based on whether they maximize pleasure. If a sexual act (e.g., homosexual, premarital, or extramarital sex) maximizes pleasure compared to not doing it, then it is considered good.

Question 23

Criticisms of Utilitarianism

Answer 23

Issues include difficulties in calculating and measuring pleasure, concerns about individual rights and liberties, and justifying harmful actions.

Question 24

Pleasure, Non-Harm, and Challenging the Topic

Answer 24

Utilitarianism is a relativist and teleological theory, assessing actions case by case.

Bentham focuses on maximising pleasure as the key purpose of sex, while John Stuart Mill sees sex as a lower pleasure compared to intellectual and social pleasures.
Mill was liberal toward sex, emphasising the non-harm principle, and utilitarians generally tolerate various sexual practices as long as consent is involved.

Question 25

Modern Utilitarian Views

Answer 25

Modern utilitarians like John Harris and Peter Singer argue sexual ethics are not unique, as most ethical issues are addressed through other means. Singer also emphasizes broader moral questions, such as the ethics of driving a car.

Question 26

Utilitarianism on Premarital Sex

Answer 26

Generally not opposed by utilitarians, especially with contraception reducing risks like unwanted pregnancies or STDs. Mill supported contraception to alleviate overpopulation and its resulting harm.

Question 27

Utilitarianism on Extramarital Sex

Answer 27

Utilitarians may oppose extramarital sex if the harm caused outweighs the pleasure. However, this is evaluated case by case. Richard Taylor argued passionate love and affairs can be valuable, but rule utilitarians may argue they cause more harm than good.

Question 28

Utilitarianism on Homosexuality

Answer 28

Both Bentham and Mill were progressive regarding homosexuality, arguing there was no logical reason to criminalise same-sex relationships. Modern utilitarians, like Peter Singer, emphasise the importance of non-harm, rejecting objections based on others' offence and supporting individuals' freedom to pursue their pleasures.

Question 29

Kant on Homosexuality

Answer 29

Kantian ethics would struggle with homosexuality being universalized, as it could prevent procreation, which contradicts the duty to perpetuate the species. However, if the maxim is "follow your own orientation," it could be universalisable.

Question 30

Kant on Premarital/Extramarital Sex

Answer 30

These practices seem universalisable as they don’t inherently involve contradictions in the conception of everyone engaging in them.

Question 31

Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative

Answer 31

Kant believes sex outside marriage, without the purpose of procreation, involves treating the partner as a mere means to one’s own gratification, which is objectification. Marriage, as a contractual agreement, allows for mutual respect and treating each other as ends in themselves.

Question 32

Critique of Kant’s View on Sex

Answer 32

Kant’s insistence on marriage and procreation seems too rigid, potentially disregarding romantic connection. His views appear overly cynical and dismissive of non-procreative sex. Kant's perspective on sex outside marriage as inherently objectifying is challenged as too narrow.

Question 33

Kant vs. Hume

Answer 33

Kant’s ethics are based on reason, whereas Hume argues that moral judgments require desire (emotion) to be motivating. Kant’s ideal of reason-based ethics is criticized by Hume, who asserts that reason alone cannot drive moral action without emotional desire.

Question 34

Emotion vs. Reason

Answer 34

Kant believes reason and emotion conflict, with reason aiming for higher intellectual ideas. Hume, however, contends that reason serves passions and is shaped by them. Kant's belief in separating reason from emotion is critiqued, especially in sexual ethics, where his views reflect cultural biases rather than pure rationality.

Question 35

Cultural Influence on Kant’s Ethics

Answer 35

Kant’s views on homosexuality as a “vice” and harsh stance on children born outside marriage reveal how his supposed rational ethics were influenced by cultural norms. Despite his rational framework, Kant’s ethical views on sex reflect the traditional, conservative attitudes of his time, showing his reason was shaped by cultural passions. Conclusion:

Question 36

Conclusion of Kant on Sexual Ethics

Answer 36

While Kant’s logic might allow for liberal views, his personal beliefs were rigidly traditional, highlighting a contradiction between his theoretical ethics and practical application. This suggests Kant’s reason was influenced by cultural prejudices rather than objective rationality.

Question 37

Is Sexual Behaviour Purely a Private and Personal Matter?: Changing Attitudes to Sex and Sexuality

Answer 37

UK attitudes are influenced by Judeo-Christian ethics, which traditionally oppose premarital, extramarital, and same-sex relationships. Contraception has reduced the risks of premarital sex, and surveys show that most people no longer see premarital sex as an issue (75% in 2019). Homophobia persists, but attitudes towards same-sex relationships are improving, with gay marriage legalised in 2014 and 68% of people now supporting same-sex relationships. Extramarital sex remains largely condemned, with 85% of people considering it wrong.

Question 38

The Non-Harm Principle

Answer 38

John Stuart Mill (Liberalism): Believed in minimal government interference, advocating for rules only to prevent harm. Mill’s non-harm principle suggests that as long as sexual activity is consensual and doesn’t harm others, no further regulation is needed. John Harris (Modern Utilitarian): Argues that sexual ethics don’t require separate discussion, as issues like violence or abuse are already addressed by other moral frameworks. Lord Devlin: Disagrees, arguing that private behavior affects public life, and social norms must protect the traditional family from changes caused by behaviors like homosexuality or premarital sex. Criticism of Devlin: Secular views and evidence show no harm from homosexuality. Social environments can change, and Mill's view on personal freedom offers a path for progress.

Question 39

Foucault and Feminism

Answer 39

Michel Foucault: Criticises categorising sexual behavior as normal or abnormal, challenging traditional religious views. Feminists: Highlight the gendered impact of sexual discrimination. Women face greater scrutiny and harm, such as in cases of sexual assault and the #MeToo movement.

Question 40

Situationism & Legalism

Answer 40

Joseph Fletcher: Opposes legalism, emphasising that sexual ethics should be based on love (Agape), which is subjective and context-dependent. Critics argue that giving too much freedom leads to selfishness, as people may act out of self-interest or cruelty. Defense of Fletcher: Agape is selfless love, not subjective or harmful love based on personal bias.

Question 41

Natural Law and Public/Private Debate

Answer 41

Aquinas: Argues that sexual behavior must conform to natural and divine law, supporting religious authoritarianism and opposing non-marital sex. Some argue for individual autonomy and sexual freedom, as long as there’s no harm to others, in line with John Stuart Mill’s harm principle.

Question 42

For Sexual Privacy

Answer 42

People should have the right to make their own sexual choices, respecting personal autonomy. Utilitarianism supports private consensual behavior as it doesn't harm society and may contribute to happiness. In a pluralistic society, individuals should have the freedom to make their own decisions based on diverse views. Postmodern ethics: Sexual behavior should be shaped by personal and cultural preferences and remain a private matter.

Question 43

Against Sexual Privacy

Answer 43

Sexual behavior can have social consequences, such as affecting family stability and public health. Natural Law: Sees procreation within marriage as the purpose of sex, with deviations potentially harming society. Religious Traditions: View sexual behavior as governed by divine or moral laws, and believe society should regulate it for the common good. Sexual behavior impacts public health, such as the spread of STIs, and may require state regulation. Virtue Ethics: Suggests that sexual behavior shapes character and relationships, implying a responsibility to consider its social impact.