Sex Differences and Sexual Selection

Question 1

What is evolution?

Answer 1

The process whereby useful features are introduced into a species.

Features are useful if they help the animal survive long enough to successfully reproduce.

To survive and reproduce, animals need to be well adapted to their environment.

Question 2

What were the main 3 concepts formed by Charles Darwin?

Answer 2

Natural selection.

Genes.

Mutations.

Question 3

Darwin’s (1871) concept of sexual selection concerns what?

Answer 3

Concerns the selection of those characteristics that aid successful reproduction (rather than survival).

Question 4

Give and example of genetic fitness with nature?

Answer 4

Some physical characteristics, such as a male peacock’s tail, are a sign of genetic fitness.

Question 5

What is genetic fitness?

Answer 5

An organism’s ability to pass its genetic material to its offspring.

Species that are more “fit” can pass on their genes and ensure their survival.

Question 6

What is more likely to happen, if a female selects a male with genetically fit characteristics?

Answer 6

More likely to produce robust offspring and therefore the preference for the desire characteristic is perpetuated in future generations.

Question 7

Give an example of a behaviour that is evolutionary adaptive. Why?

Answer 7

Aggressiveness.

This is because they provide an advantage for a male over competitors for reproductive rights.

Question 8

Why is aggressiveness a desirable evolutionary characteristic?

Answer 8

It had allowed the animal to reproduce in the first place.

This characteristic is then passed on to offspring, if they it is genetically determined.

This means that the genes that gave rise to the characteristics remain in the population.

Question 9

When did Darwin form is concept of sexual selection?

Answer 9

1871.

Question 10

What did Thiessen et al do in 1993?

Answer 10

Looked at personal ads.

Stated that they act as a sort of mate arena, where males and females offer certain characteristics in an attempt to attract a mate, whilst at the same time requesting qualities they would like in return.​

Question 11

What did Thiessen et al find? (1993)

Answer 11

Men typically offer resources and seek attractiveness.

Women seek the resources and offer attractiveness.

Question 12

What does Buss’ research from 1989 provide?

Answer 12

Provides supporting evidence for universal sex differences in long-term mate preferences.

Question 13

What did Buss explore in his 1989 study?

Answer 13

Explored what males and females looked for in a marriage partner.

Question 14

How many people took part in Buss’ 1989 study? How many cultures?

Answer 14

The study involved over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures.

Question 15

What was the procedure of Buss’ 1989 study?

Answer 15

Asked to rate 18 characteristics (e.g. physical attractiveness) on how important they would be in choosing a mate.

It was a 3 point scale, 3 = indispensable, 0=irrelevant.

Question 16

What were the male results of Buss’ 1989 study?

Answer 16

Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness. Research has consistently shown that physical appearance provides a wealth of cues to a woman’s health and hence her fertility and reproductive value.

Men universally wanted mates who were younger than them - an indication that men valued increased fertility in potential mates.

Question 17

What were the female results of Buss’ 1989 study?

Answer 17

Women more than men desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’. This translated into a desire for men with resources, or qualities that were linked to resource acquisition, such as ambition.

Question 18

What were the both gender results of Buss’ 1989 study?

Answer 18

Both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent (linked to skill at parenting), kind (linked to an interest in long-term relationships) and dependable (linked to willingness to help a mate in times of trouble).

Question 19

Outline the research completed by Buss, 1989. (Signpost).

Answer 19

Buss provides supporting evidence for universal sex differences in long-term mate preferences. They studied over 10,000 people from 37 cultures, exploring what males and females looked for in a marriage partner. They found that more women desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’, and found that more men relied on physical attractiveness as an important characteristic. This supports the idea that sex preference is different between the genders.

Question 20

How is the research completed by Buss (1989) nomothetic?

(Evaluation)

Answer 20

Nomothetic, as it used a large sample (10,000 people), in order to produce a generalised conclusion about long-term mate preferences.

This was done with a close-ended questionnaire, due to the large sample size. Close-ended questionnaires allow for quick analysis of quantitative data.

Question 21

How is the research completed by Buss (1989) culturally inclusive?

(Evaluation)

Answer 21

Cultural inclusive, as it considered 37 different cultures, so there was less bias or incorrectly imposed results.

Question 22

How is the research completed by Buss (1989) biologically deterministic?

(Evaluation)

Answer 22

Biologically deterministic, as it presumes that mating preferences are pre-determined for each gender - ignoring the role of free-will and individual differences.

Question 23

How does the research completed by Buss (1989) link to Darwin’s concepts of sexual selection?

(Evaluation)

Answer 23

Links to Darwin’s evolutionary views as it states that women desire resources; securing the survival of herself and her offspring. Also states that men desire physical beauty; perhaps indicating her youthfulness - thus fertility for the men to pass on his genetics.

Question 24

How does the research completed by Buss (1989) question temporal validity?

(Evaluation)

Answer 24

Temporal validity, perhaps only relevant data to the time period.

Question 25

What did Clarke and Hatfield provide in 1989?

Answer 25

Provided evidence for sex differences in short-term mating preferences.

Question 26

Outline the study completed by Clarke and Hatfield in 1989.

Answer 26

96 students, 48 male and 48 female.

Men and women experimenters approached total strangers on a college campus, and said: ‘Hi, I’ve been noticing you around campus and I find you very attractive.’

They then asked them one of three questions:

(1) Would you go on a date with me?
(2) Would you go back to my apartment with me?
(3) Would you have sex with me?

Question 27

What were the male results from the questions asked by Clarke and Hatfield, 1989?

Answer 27

50% agreed to a date.

69% were willing to go back to her apartment.

75% agreed to have sex.

Question 28

What were the female results from the questions asked by Clarke and Hatfield, 1989?

Answer 28

50% agreed to go on a date with the man.

6% to go back to his apartment.

0% to have sex.

Question 29

Were Clarke and Hatfield’s findings reliable?

Answer 29

Yes, as they were replicated in subsequent studies.

Question 30

What does Clarke and Hatfield’s study demonstrate? What does this include?

Answer 30

Demonstrates that men have evolved psychological mechanisms to ensure success in short-term mating.

These include a desire for:

Sexual variety.
The tendency to let little time elapse before seeking sexual intercourse.
A willingness to consent to sex with strangers.

Question 31

How is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) unrepresentative? Why is this especially significant?

(Evaluation)

Answer 31

The study only used college students, so was unrepresentative of an entire population.

This is especially significant, as it is trying to support the evolutionary approach, so all cultures and lifestyles should be considered

Question 32

How is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) biologically reductionist?

(Evaluation)

Answer 32

Biologically reductionist, as it completely ignores individual differences, using only the operationalised questions are support for short-term mating.

Question 33

How does the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) question deception?

(Evaluation)

Answer 33

Elements of deception were used, this brings into question whether a debrief was completed afterwards, in order to protect the participants from psychological harm.

Question 34

Why is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) socially sensitive?

(Evaluation)

Answer 34

It is socially sensitive as it presents men and women in very different light. This means that there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the culture of individuals represented by the research.

Question 35

Outline the research completed by Miller et al in 2007.

Answer 35

Calculated the tips earned by lap dancers at varying stages of their menstrual cycle.

Those girls who were in the fertile oestrus phase of their cycle earned almost twice the value of tips compared to girls who were not in oestrus.

Question 36

Is Miller et al’s research from 2007 objective?

(Evaluation)

Answer 36

No, as the findings are correlational, so the results do not necessarily establish cause and effect.

Question 37

How is the research completed by Miller et al (2007) biologically reductionist?

(Evaluation)

Answer 37

Biologically deterministic, as you cannot control body cycles such as the menstrual cycle.

This presents the research in a negative light, as it renders the incomes of the women pre-determined to biological factors.

Question 38

Outline Buller’s study from 2005?

Answer 38

Claimed that evolutionary psychologists are mistaken in their claims of a universal female preference for high-status men as mates.

He argues that the majority of studies attempting to determine female mate preference have been carried out on female undergraduate students.

These women expect to achieve high educational status and so have expectations of high income levels.

Question 39

Peacock feathers are colourful and attractive. Why might this be? How does this link to what Darwin thought?

Answer 39

Makes female peacocks more likely to mate.

Darwin thought that this happened because of female choice (inter).

If a characteristic becomes established as a universal preference among females, males possessing the characteristic will have greater reproductive success.

Question 40

Give 3 examples of ‘peacocking’ in humans?

Answer 40

Makeup.

Hair.

Fashion.

Question 41

Outline the research completed by Nettle and Clegg in 2006?

Answer 41

Contemporary British poets and artists and a control group of non-creatives professionals.

They found that males in the creative professions tended to have significantly more sexual partners.

Question 42

What is human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 42

Refers to any behaviours which relate to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chances of our genes.

It includes the evolutionary mechanisms underlying our partner preferences, such as mate choice and mate competition.

Question 43

Does human reproductive behaviour differ between genders?

Answer 43

There are different mating strategies used by males and females.

Question 44

What is sexual selection?

Answer 44

When a trait within a species increases the reproductive success of an individual.

This becomes more exaggerated over time, through generations.

Question 45

Give an example of sexual selection in nature.

Answer 45

Male peacocks have bright, big tails.

‘Survival of the sexiest’.

Question 46

Briefly, what is intrasexual selection?

Answer 46

Mate competition.

Question 47

Briefly, what is intersexual selection?

Answer 47

Mate choice.

Question 48

What is intrasexual selection? Give an example.

Answer 48

Individuals of one sex (usually males) compete with members of the same sex for access to the opposite sex (females).

E.g. Stags fighting for access to females during mating season. The winner takes the territory and access to the females within it.

Question 49

What is intersexual selection? What does it lead to the development of? Give an example.

Answer 49

This form of selection involves individuals from one sex (usually females) being choosy in selecting a sexual partner (usually males).

This leads to the development of traits that enable animals to attract members of the opposite sex.

E.g. Peacock tail or females preference for taller men.

Question 50

Why are women more choosy with mates?

Answer 50

According to sociobiological theory women invest more time in child bearing, which means that they are more choosy when selecting their mate.

Women want someone that can provide for her and her infant (older and well-established).

Question 51

Outline the research completed by Baker and Bellis in 1995.

Answer 51

Asked 2700 PPs to complete a survey in a magazine related to extra martial affairs and their offspring.

They found that quite a high number of women had married for resources and engaged in extra-marital affairs to ensure good genes (sexy son’s hypothesis) in their offspring.

Question 52

What is the sexy son’s hypothesis?

Answer 52

A theory of mating preference which states that women tend to pick males, as their sexual partners, with the genes to create attractive sons.

Question 53

Outline the research completed by Cartwright in 2001.

Answer 53

Stated that another feature of sexual selection is the capacity to be sexually aroused.

It was found that men appear to have a lower arousal threshold than females; indeed, some male frog species will mate with anything that vaguely resembles a female frog.

Question 54

What did Ridley state in 1993?

Answer 54

‘People are attracted to people of high reproductive and genetic potential – the healthy, the fit and the powerful.’

Question 55

How can we tell if someone possesses genetically fit features?

Answer 55

Diet.

Income.

Sporting achievements.

Physically fit attractions, e.g. muscles.

Intelligence.

Cleanliness.

Question 56

Outline the study completed by Langlois and Roggman from 1990.

(Facial symmetry)

Answer 56

Computer composite pictures.

The more faces incorporated in each image, the more symmetrical and attractive they became.

Question 57

What was stated by Cartwright in 2000.

(Facial symmetry)

Answer 57

Symmetrical faces are preferred as symmetry equates with fitness.

Question 58

What was stated by Perret et al from 1990.

(Facial symmetry)

Answer 58

Increasing symmetry in facial shape increased attractiveness.

Question 59

What did Perret find, to do with indicators of fitness and cultural issues? What did this show?

Answer 59

Perret found that the same pattern of results for European and Japanese faces regardless of which culture the judges were from

This showed universal agreement that symmetry is attractive.

Question 60

How have gender differences been identified in sexual selection? Who supported this?

Answer 60

Cunningham’s attractive male and female profiles showed gender differences.

(Supported by Berry).

Question 61

Outline the research completed by Cartwright in 2000.

Answer 61

Males and Females with near perfect body symmetry report two to three times more sexual partners than those with the most asymmetrical bodies.

However it may not just be the symmetry itself as other characteristics correlated with it such as dominance or higher self-esteem may be a factor.

Question 62

What did Singh find in 1993?

Answer 62

Found waist-hip ratio to be a reliable indicator of female mate value.

Question 63

What did Singh identify as the optimum waist-to-hip ratio?

Answer 63

0.7.

Question 64

What did Singh base his conclusions on?

Answer 64

Archival data from beauty contest winners and playboy centrefolds from 50 years.

Question 65

What are 2 issues with Singh’s conclusion?

Answer 65

This optimum is inaccurate as it bases data from the most attractive people, applying it to everyone.

It also does not consider cultural differences, as most playboy models are predominantly from Northern America.

Question 66

Outline Dixon’s research from 2006.

Answer 66

In Cameroon it was found that optimum waist to hip ratio was 0.8.

This shows Singh’s conclusion is not universal.

Question 67

Cross-cultural replications haven’t generally supported the claim that there’s a universal preference for a WHR of 0.7.

What did Singh do to amend his research?

Answer 67

Singh himself argued that the WHR acts as an initial ‘filter’ after which the face and/or body weight (varies between cultures) are used in final mate selection.

Question 68

Why does Buss’s research, from 1989, provide clear evidence of the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 68

The inter creates the intra, as it sets a standard for mate competition, and desirable characteristics.

Question 69

Why does Clarke and Hatfield’s research, from 1989, provide clear evidence of the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 69

Links to inter. This form of selection involves individuals from one sex (usually females) being choosy in selecting a sexual partner (usually males).

Links to intra. As the men that are choosing to have sex are reducing mate competition.

Question 70

What are the 5 male strategies that maximise opportunities for mating success, for the evolutionary theory?

Answer 70

Courtship rituals.

Size.

Sperm competition.

Mate guarding.

Sneak copulation.

Question 71

Outline ‘courtship rituals’ as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 71

They suggest that these allow males to display genetic potential, through characteristics and resource abilities.

Question 72

Outline ‘size’ as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 72

They suggest that males evolved to be bigger, which they argue demonstrates strength for success in competition against other males.

Weaponry evolved in some species, for example antlers in deer.

Question 73

Outline ‘sperm competition’ as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 73

Here they argue that natural selection acted on males, making them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejaculations and faster-swimming sperm.

Question 74

Outline ‘mate guarding’ as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 74

Here they argue that from an evolutionary perspective, males are supposedly wary of other males impregnating their partner (and therefore passing their genetic information onto offspring), and of then spending resources raising another male’s child.

They suggest that males therefore indulge in mate guarding, where they keep an eye on and remain in close contact with female partners to prevent them mating with other males.

Question 75

Outline ‘sneak copulation’ as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 75

Here they argue that males may supposedly mate with females other than their partners in order to increase their chances of reproductive success.

According to the theory, females are seen as being able to profit from this too, as having different fathers brings a wider genetic diversity to their children, which increases survival chances.

Question 76

What are the 5 female strategies that maximise opportunities for mating success, for the evolutionary theory?

Answer 76

Sexy sons hypothesis.

Handicap hypothesis.

Courtship.

Question 77

Outline ‘sexy sons hypothesis’ as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 77

Females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features, increasing their sons’ and thus their own reproductive fitness; the son (who shares the mother’s genes) will have his father’s attractive features, increasing his reproductive chances (and thus enhancing his mother’s reproductive chances too, i.e. through her genes within her son).

Question 78

Outline ‘handicap hypothesis’ as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 78

Zahavi (1975) believes females select males with handicaps because it advertises ability to thrive despite handicaps, demonstrating superior genetic quality.

This may explain females finding males attractive who drink or take drugs in large amounts, as they are demonstrating an ability to handle toxins, a sign of genetic fitness.

Question 79

Outline ‘courtship’ as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).

Answer 79

Females use courtship to select males on the basis of reproductive fitness, through males demonstrating strength, health and ability to provide resources.

Prolonged courtship rituals also benefit females, as they make males invest time, effort and resources, increasing the chances of males not deserting after successful matings, and so investing more resources in females and their offspring.

Thus the human practice of dating, with males investing resources in females.

Question 80

What was the aim of Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 80

To test Buss’s (1992) belief that males fear sexual infidelity more, while females fear emotional infidelity more.

Question 81

How many people were in Schutzwohl & Koch’s research? What was the sample like? What was the demographic?

Answer 81

An opportunity sample of 100 male and 100 female German university students formed the sample.

Question 82

Outline the procedure of Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 82

Experimental procedures, scenarios and response alternatives were presented on a computer screen.

Participants were presented with four scenarios involving social situations, each with a choice of two alternative responses.

Only the responses to scenario four were of interest to the study.

Participants were asked to vividly imagine the scenarios before responding.

Participants were told that the scenarios referred to romantic relationships they had been in, were currently in or would like to be in.

The description of sexual and emotional infidelities was counterbalanced across participants. Choices were recorded, along with the times taken to make a decision after scenario presentation.

Question 83

What fourth scenario proposed to participants in Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 83

“Imagine that you discover your partner formed both a deep emotional and a passionate sexual relationship with another person. Which aspect of your partner’s involvement would make you more jealous?”.

The deep emotional relationship.
The passionate sexual relationship.

Question 84

What were the findings from Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 84

Both sexes reported more jealousy concerning the partner’s emotional involvement, but more males (37%) than females (20%) selected their partner’s sexual involvement as making them more jealous.

Women who selected emotional infidelity reached their decision faster than women selecting sexual infidelity. Men who selected sexual infidelity reached their decision faster than men selecting emotional infidelity.

Question 85

What were the conclusions from Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 85

The research suggests that men who are more jealous of sexual infidelity employ less elaborate decision strategies - hence the quicker decision time, while women who are more jealous of emotional infidelity employ less elaborate decision strategies than women who are more jealous of sexual infidelity. Men and women who choose their adaptively primary infidelity type- that is, sexual for men, emotional for women - rely on their initial response tendency suggested by their respective jealousy mechanism, whereas men and women selecting their adaptively secondary infidelity type engage in additional considerations that lead them to override their initial response tendency.

Question 86

What evaluations can be made about Schutzwohl & Koch’s research from 2004.

Answer 86

Previous results from similar research, suggesting that women who select the emotional infidelity option engage in a more elaborate decision-making process than women selecting sexual infidelity, are refuted by this study.

The study does not identify the exact nature of the decision processes undertaken, especially by men, when selecting their adaptively secondary infidelity type.

Question 87

Outline, Buss (1989), as an A03 point.

Answer 87

Tested participants from 37 cultures, finding that males prefer young, physically attractive females, while females prefer resource-rich, ambitious, industrious males.

Supporting the idea that gender-based ideas of attractiveness are biological in nature.

Question 88

Outline, Davis (1990), as an A03 point.

Answer 88

Performed a content analysis of personal advertisements, finding that men look for health and attractiveness, while offering wealth and resources.

Females look for resources and status, while offering beauty and youth.

Supporting the idea of evolutionary-based gender differences in relationship formation.

Question 89

Outline, Dunbar (1995), as an A03 point.

Answer 89

Additional support came from Dunbar (1995), who analysed 900 personal advertisements from four US newspapers.

Found that 42% of males sought youthfulness, while only 25% of females did.

This supports the socio-biological idea that males and females have different reasons for forming relationships.

Question 90

Outline, Pawlowski and Dunbar (1999), as an A03 point.

Answer 90

Examined the idea that older women do not disclose their true age in personal advertisements because men tend to judge prospective female partners on age, as it correlates with fertility.

This was found to be true, especially for women aged 35–50, implying that women disguise their age in order to find high-quality partners before reproductive opportunities are ended by the menopause.

Question 91

Outline, Toma (2008), as an A03 point.

Answer 91

Used personal advertisements to research, found males thought it more acceptable to lie about their education and income than females.

However, Kurzban & Weeden (2005) found females more likely to declare their weight as less than it was.

This illustrates how resource richness is seen as attractive in males, while physical attractiveness as a sign of fertility is seen as attractive in females.

Question 92

Outline, Cartwright (2000), as an A03 point.

Answer 92

Found that women with symmetrical breasts were more fertile than more asymmetrically breasted women

This supports the idea that body symmetry indicates reproductive fitness.

Question 93

Outline, Penton-Voak et al (2001), as an A03 point.

Answer 93

Additional support for Cartwright (2000) comes from Penton-Voak et al. (2001), who found that females prefer males with greater facial symmetry, an indication of developmental stability that would be passed on to their sons, increasing reproductive potential.

Question 94

Outline, Langlois and Roggman (1990), as an A03 point.

Answer 94

Used computer-composite images to produce faces of varying symmetrical quality, finding a preference for symmetrical faces, faces identical in shape and form on both sides.

This applied to both male and female faces.

Cartwright (2000) supported this, finding that men prefer photographs of women with symmetrical faces and vice versa.

Question 95

How does Cartwright’s (2000) study make sense from an evolutionary view?

Answer 95

From an evolutionary view, this makes sense as they would want a greater chance of passing on genes and characteristics.

It seems that males can be sexually aroused for long periods of time with the introduction of different females.

It makes evolutionary sense for a male to have multiple partners, each of whom can produce a baby for him.

Question 96

What did Buss (1993) believe about mate guarding?

Answer 96

Believes while men are fearful of partners being sexually unfaithful, females worry about emotional unfaithfulness, due to a fear of their partner spending resources on other females.

Question 97

Outline the research by Dunbar and Waynforth (1995)

Answer 97

Used a content analysis method of 900 personal dating ads across four USA newspapers.

Found 42% of males looking for ‘youthful’ mates compared to 25% of females.

Men were more likely to emphasise their economic status in their own adverts, women were more likely to emphasise their looks.

This supports the evolutionary theories of females being more attracted to status and resources, with men advertising these, and males are looking for females capable of reproduction.