Sex Differences and Sexual Selection Flashcards
1
Q
What is evolution?
A
The process whereby useful features are introduced into a species.
Features are useful if they help the animal survive long enough to successfully reproduce.
To survive and reproduce, animals need to be well adapted to their environment.
2
Q
What were the main 3 concepts formed by Charles Darwin?
A
Natural selection.
Genes.
Mutations.
3
Q
Darwin’s (1871) concept of sexual selection concerns what?
A
Concerns the selection of those characteristics that aid successful reproduction (rather than survival).
4
Q
Give and example of genetic fitness with nature?
A
Some physical characteristics, such as a male peacock’s tail, are a sign of genetic fitness.
5
Q
What is genetic fitness?
A
An organism’s ability to pass its genetic material to its offspring.
Species that are more “fit” can pass on their genes and ensure their survival.
6
Q
What is more likely to happen, if a female selects a male with genetically fit characteristics?
A
More likely to produce robust offspring and therefore the preference for the desire characteristic is perpetuated in future generations.
7
Q
Give an example of a behaviour that is evolutionary adaptive. Why?
A
Aggressiveness.
This is because they provide an advantage for a male over competitors for reproductive rights.
8
Q
Why is aggressiveness a desirable evolutionary characteristic?
A
It had allowed the animal to reproduce in the first place.
This characteristic is then passed on to offspring, if they it is genetically determined.
This means that the genes that gave rise to the characteristics remain in the population.
9
Q
When did Darwin form is concept of sexual selection?
A
1871.
10
Q
What did Thiessen et al do in 1993?
A
Looked at personal ads.
Stated that they act as a sort of mate arena, where males and females offer certain characteristics in an attempt to attract a mate, whilst at the same time requesting qualities they would like in return.
11
Q
What did Thiessen et al find? (1993)
A
Men typically offer resources and seek attractiveness.
Women seek the resources and offer attractiveness.
12
Q
What does Buss’ research from 1989 provide?
A
Provides supporting evidence for universal sex differences in long-term mate preferences.
13
Q
What did Buss explore in his 1989 study?
A
Explored what males and females looked for in a marriage partner.
14
Q
How many people took part in Buss’ 1989 study? How many cultures?
A
The study involved over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures.
15
Q
What was the procedure of Buss’ 1989 study?
A
Asked to rate 18 characteristics (e.g. physical attractiveness) on how important they would be in choosing a mate.
It was a 3 point scale, 3 = indispensable, 0=irrelevant.
16
Q
What were the male results of Buss’ 1989 study?
A
Men placed more importance on physical attractiveness. Research has consistently shown that physical appearance provides a wealth of cues to a woman’s health and hence her fertility and reproductive value.
Men universally wanted mates who were younger than them - an indication that men valued increased fertility in potential mates.
17
Q
What were the female results of Buss’ 1989 study?
A
Women more than men desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’. This translated into a desire for men with resources, or qualities that were linked to resource acquisition, such as ambition.
18
Q
What were the both gender results of Buss’ 1989 study?
A
Both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent (linked to skill at parenting), kind (linked to an interest in long-term relationships) and dependable (linked to willingness to help a mate in times of trouble).
19
Q
Outline the research completed by Buss, 1989. (Signpost).
A
Buss provides supporting evidence for universal sex differences in long-term mate preferences. They studied over 10,000 people from 37 cultures, exploring what males and females looked for in a marriage partner. They found that more women desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’, and found that more men relied on physical attractiveness as an important characteristic. This supports the idea that sex preference is different between the genders.
20
Q
How is the research completed by Buss (1989) nomothetic?
(Evaluation)
A
Nomothetic, as it used a large sample (10,000 people), in order to produce a generalised conclusion about long-term mate preferences.
This was done with a close-ended questionnaire, due to the large sample size. Close-ended questionnaires allow for quick analysis of quantitative data.
21
Q
How is the research completed by Buss (1989) culturally inclusive?
(Evaluation)
A
Cultural inclusive, as it considered 37 different cultures, so there was less bias or incorrectly imposed results.
22
Q
How is the research completed by Buss (1989) biologically deterministic?
(Evaluation)
A
Biologically deterministic, as it presumes that mating preferences are pre-determined for each gender - ignoring the role of free-will and individual differences.
23
Q
How does the research completed by Buss (1989) link to Darwin’s concepts of sexual selection?
(Evaluation)
A
Links to Darwin’s evolutionary views as it states that women desire resources; securing the survival of herself and her offspring. Also states that men desire physical beauty; perhaps indicating her youthfulness - thus fertility for the men to pass on his genetics.
24
Q
How does the research completed by Buss (1989) question temporal validity?
(Evaluation)
A
Temporal validity, perhaps only relevant data to the time period.
25
What did Clarke and Hatfield provide in 1989?
Provided evidence for sex differences in short-term mating preferences.
26
Outline the study completed by Clarke and Hatfield in 1989.
96 students, 48 male and 48 female.
Men and women experimenters approached total strangers on a college campus, and said: 'Hi, I've been noticing you around campus and I find you very attractive.'
They then asked them one of three questions:
(1) Would you go on a date with me?
(2) Would you go back to my apartment with me?
(3) Would you have sex with me?
27
What were the male results from the questions asked by Clarke and Hatfield, 1989?
50% agreed to a date.
69% were willing to go back to her apartment.
75% agreed to have sex.
28
What were the female results from the questions asked by Clarke and Hatfield, 1989?
50% agreed to go on a date with the man.
6% to go back to his apartment.
0% to have sex.
29
Were Clarke and Hatfield's findings reliable?
Yes, as they were replicated in subsequent studies.
30
What does Clarke and Hatfield's study demonstrate? What does this include?
Demonstrates that men have evolved psychological mechanisms to ensure success in short-term mating.
These include a desire for:
Sexual variety.
The tendency to let little time elapse before seeking sexual intercourse.
A willingness to consent to sex with strangers.
31
How is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) unrepresentative? Why is this especially significant?
(Evaluation)
The study only used college students, so was unrepresentative of an entire population.
This is especially significant, as it is trying to support the evolutionary approach, so all cultures and lifestyles should be considered
32
How is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) biologically reductionist?
(Evaluation)
Biologically reductionist, as it completely ignores individual differences, using only the operationalised questions are support for short-term mating.
33
How does the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) question deception?
(Evaluation)
Elements of deception were used, this brings into question whether a debrief was completed afterwards, in order to protect the participants from psychological harm.
34
Why is the research completed by Clarke and Hatfield (1989) socially sensitive?
(Evaluation)
It is socially sensitive as it presents men and women in very different light. This means that there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the culture of individuals represented by the research.
35
Outline the research completed by Miller et al in 2007.
Calculated the tips earned by lap dancers at varying stages of their menstrual cycle.
Those girls who were in the fertile oestrus phase of their cycle earned almost twice the value of tips compared to girls who were not in oestrus.
36
Is Miller et al's research from 2007 objective?
(Evaluation)
No, as the findings are correlational, so the results do not necessarily establish cause and effect.
37
How is the research completed by Miller et al (2007) biologically reductionist?
(Evaluation)
Biologically deterministic, as you cannot control body cycles such as the menstrual cycle.
This presents the research in a negative light, as it renders the incomes of the women pre-determined to biological factors.
38
Outline Buller's study from 2005?
Claimed that evolutionary psychologists are mistaken in their claims of a universal female preference for high-status men as mates.
He argues that the majority of studies attempting to determine female mate preference have been carried out on female undergraduate students.
These women expect to achieve high educational status and so have expectations of high income levels.
39
Peacock feathers are colourful and attractive. Why might this be? How does this link to what Darwin thought?
Makes female peacocks more likely to mate.
Darwin thought that this happened because of female choice (inter).
If a characteristic becomes established as a universal preference among females, males possessing the characteristic will have greater reproductive success.
40
Give 3 examples of 'peacocking' in humans?
Makeup.
Hair.
Fashion.
41
Outline the research completed by Nettle and Clegg in 2006?
Contemporary British poets and artists and a control group of non-creatives professionals.
They found that males in the creative professions tended to have significantly more sexual partners.
42
What is human reproductive behaviour?
Refers to any behaviours which relate to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chances of our genes.
It includes the evolutionary mechanisms underlying our partner preferences, such as mate choice and mate competition.
43
Does human reproductive behaviour differ between genders?
There are different mating strategies used by males and females.
44
What is sexual selection?
When a trait within a species increases the reproductive success of an individual.
This becomes more exaggerated over time, through generations.
45
Give an example of sexual selection in nature.
Male peacocks have bright, big tails.
'Survival of the sexiest'.
46
Briefly, what is intrasexual selection?
Mate competition.
47
Briefly, what is intersexual selection?
Mate choice.
48
What is intrasexual selection? Give an example.
Individuals of one sex (usually males) compete with members of the same sex for access to the opposite sex (females).
E.g. Stags fighting for access to females during mating season. The winner takes the territory and access to the females within it.
49
What is intersexual selection? What does it lead to the development of? Give an example.
This form of selection involves individuals from one sex (usually females) being choosy in selecting a sexual partner (usually males).
This leads to the development of traits that enable animals to attract members of the opposite sex.
E.g. Peacock tail or females preference for taller men.
50
Why are women more choosy with mates?
According to sociobiological theory women invest more time in child bearing, which means that they are more choosy when selecting their mate.
Women want someone that can provide for her and her infant (older and well-established).
51
Outline the research completed by Baker and Bellis in 1995.
Asked 2700 PPs to complete a survey in a magazine related to extra martial affairs and their offspring.
They found that quite a high number of women had married for resources and engaged in extra-marital affairs to ensure good genes (sexy son's hypothesis) in their offspring.
52
What is the sexy son's hypothesis?
A theory of mating preference which states that women tend to pick males, as their sexual partners, with the genes to create attractive sons.
53
Outline the research completed by Cartwright in 2001.
Stated that another feature of sexual selection is the capacity to be sexually aroused.
It was found that men appear to have a lower arousal threshold than females; indeed, some male frog species will mate with anything that vaguely resembles a female frog.
54
What did Ridley state in 1993?
'People are attracted to people of high reproductive and genetic potential – the healthy, the fit and the powerful.’
55
How can we tell if someone possesses genetically fit features?
Diet.
Income.
Sporting achievements.
Physically fit attractions, e.g. muscles.
Intelligence.
Cleanliness.
56
Outline the study completed by Langlois and Roggman from 1990.
(Facial symmetry)
Computer composite pictures.
The more faces incorporated in each image, the more symmetrical and attractive they became.
57
What was stated by Cartwright in 2000.
(Facial symmetry)
Symmetrical faces are preferred as symmetry equates with fitness.
58
What was stated by Perret et al from 1990.
(Facial symmetry)
Increasing symmetry in facial shape increased attractiveness.
59
What did Perret find, to do with indicators of fitness and cultural issues? What did this show?
Perret found that the same pattern of results for European and Japanese faces regardless of which culture the judges were from
This showed universal agreement that symmetry is attractive.
60
How have gender differences been identified in sexual selection? Who supported this?
Cunningham's attractive male and female profiles showed gender differences.
(Supported by Berry).
61
Outline the research completed by Cartwright in 2000.
Males and Females with near perfect body symmetry report two to three times more sexual partners than those with the most asymmetrical bodies.
However it may not just be the symmetry itself as other characteristics correlated with it such as dominance or higher self-esteem may be a factor.
62
What did Singh find in 1993?
Found waist-hip ratio to be a reliable indicator of female mate value.
63
What did Singh identify as the optimum waist-to-hip ratio?
0.7.
64
What did Singh base his conclusions on?
Archival data from beauty contest winners and playboy centrefolds from 50 years.
65
What are 2 issues with Singh's conclusion?
This optimum is inaccurate as it bases data from the most attractive people, applying it to everyone.
It also does not consider cultural differences, as most playboy models are predominantly from Northern America.
66
Outline Dixon's research from 2006.
In Cameroon it was found that optimum waist to hip ratio was 0.8.
This shows Singh's conclusion is not universal.
67
Cross-cultural replications haven't generally supported the claim that there's a universal preference for a WHR of 0.7.
What did Singh do to amend his research?
Singh himself argued that the WHR acts as an initial ‘filter’ after which the face and/or body weight (varies between cultures) are used in final mate selection.
68
Why does Buss's research, from 1989, provide clear evidence of the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?
The inter creates the intra, as it sets a standard for mate competition, and desirable characteristics.
69
Why does Clarke and Hatfield's research, from 1989, provide clear evidence of the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?
Links to inter. This form of selection involves individuals from one sex (usually females) being choosy in selecting a sexual partner (usually males).
Links to intra. As the men that are choosing to have sex are reducing mate competition.
70
What are the 5 male strategies that maximise opportunities for mating success, for the evolutionary theory?
Courtship rituals.
Size.
Sperm competition.
Mate guarding.
Sneak copulation.
71
Outline 'courtship rituals' as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
They suggest that these allow males to display genetic potential, through characteristics and resource abilities.
72
Outline 'size' as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
They suggest that males evolved to be bigger, which they argue demonstrates strength for success in competition against other males.
Weaponry evolved in some species, for example antlers in deer.
73
Outline 'sperm competition' as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Here they argue that natural selection acted on males, making them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejaculations and faster-swimming sperm.
74
Outline 'mate guarding' as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Here they argue that from an evolutionary perspective, males are supposedly wary of other males impregnating their partner (and therefore passing their genetic information onto offspring), and of then spending resources raising another male's child.
They suggest that males therefore indulge in mate guarding, where they keep an eye on and remain in close contact with female partners to prevent them mating with other males.
75
Outline 'sneak copulation' as a male strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Here they argue that males may supposedly mate with females other than their partners in order to increase their chances of reproductive success.
According to the theory, females are seen as being able to profit from this too, as having different fathers brings a wider genetic diversity to their children, which increases survival chances.
76
What are the 5 female strategies that maximise opportunities for mating success, for the evolutionary theory?
Sexy sons hypothesis.
Handicap hypothesis.
Courtship.
77
Outline 'sexy sons hypothesis' as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features, increasing their sons' and thus their own reproductive fitness; the son (who shares the mother's genes) will have his father's attractive features, increasing his reproductive chances (and thus enhancing his mother's reproductive chances too, i.e. through her genes within her son).
78
Outline 'handicap hypothesis' as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Zahavi (1975) believes females select males with handicaps because it advertises ability to thrive despite handicaps, demonstrating superior genetic quality.
This may explain females finding males attractive who drink or take drugs in large amounts, as they are demonstrating an ability to handle toxins, a sign of genetic fitness.
79
Outline 'courtship' as a female strategy used to maximise opportunities for mating success. (Evolutionary theory).
Females use courtship to select males on the basis of reproductive fitness, through males demonstrating strength, health and ability to provide resources.
Prolonged courtship rituals also benefit females, as they make males invest time, effort and resources, increasing the chances of males not deserting after successful matings, and so investing more resources in females and their offspring.
Thus the human practice of dating, with males investing resources in females.
80
What was the aim of Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
To test Buss's (1992) belief that males fear sexual infidelity more, while females fear emotional infidelity more.
81
How many people were in Schutzwohl & Koch's research? What was the sample like? What was the demographic?
An opportunity sample of 100 male and 100 female German university students formed the sample.
82
Outline the procedure of Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
Experimental procedures, scenarios and response alternatives were presented on a computer screen.
Participants were presented with four scenarios involving social situations, each with a choice of two alternative responses.
Only the responses to scenario four were of interest to the study.
Participants were asked to vividly imagine the scenarios before responding.
Participants were told that the scenarios referred to romantic relationships they had been in, were currently in or would like to be in.
The description of sexual and emotional infidelities was counterbalanced across participants. Choices were recorded, along with the times taken to make a decision after scenario presentation.
83
What fourth scenario proposed to participants in Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
"Imagine that you discover your partner formed both a deep emotional and a passionate sexual relationship with another person. Which aspect of your partner's involvement would make you more jealous?".
The deep emotional relationship.
The passionate sexual relationship.
84
What were the findings from Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
Both sexes reported more jealousy concerning the partner's emotional involvement, but more males (37%) than females (20%) selected their partner's sexual involvement as making them more jealous.
Women who selected emotional infidelity reached their decision faster than women selecting sexual infidelity. Men who selected sexual infidelity reached their decision faster than men selecting emotional infidelity.
85
What were the conclusions from Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
The research suggests that men who are more jealous of sexual infidelity employ less elaborate decision strategies - hence the quicker decision time, while women who are more jealous of emotional infidelity employ less elaborate decision strategies than women who are more jealous of sexual infidelity. Men and women who choose their adaptively primary infidelity type- that is, sexual for men, emotional for women - rely on their initial response tendency suggested by their respective jealousy mechanism, whereas men and women selecting their adaptively secondary infidelity type engage in additional considerations that lead them to override their initial response tendency.
86
What evaluations can be made about Schutzwohl & Koch's research from 2004.
Previous results from similar research, suggesting that women who select the emotional infidelity option engage in a more elaborate decision-making process than women selecting sexual infidelity, are refuted by this study.
The study does not identify the exact nature of the decision processes undertaken, especially by men, when selecting their adaptively secondary infidelity type.
87
Outline, Buss (1989), as an A03 point.
Tested participants from 37 cultures, finding that males prefer young, physically attractive females, while females prefer resource-rich, ambitious, industrious males.
Supporting the idea that gender-based ideas of attractiveness are biological in nature.
88
Outline, Davis (1990), as an A03 point.
Performed a content analysis of personal advertisements, finding that men look for health and attractiveness, while offering wealth and resources.
Females look for resources and status, while offering beauty and youth.
Supporting the idea of evolutionary-based gender differences in relationship formation.
89
Outline, Dunbar (1995), as an A03 point.
Additional support came from Dunbar (1995), who analysed 900 personal advertisements from four US newspapers.
Found that 42% of males sought youthfulness, while only 25% of females did.
This supports the socio-biological idea that males and females have different reasons for forming relationships.
90
Outline, Pawlowski and Dunbar (1999), as an A03 point.
Examined the idea that older women do not disclose their true age in personal advertisements because men tend to judge prospective female partners on age, as it correlates with fertility.
This was found to be true, especially for women aged 35–50, implying that women disguise their age in order to find high-quality partners before reproductive opportunities are ended by the menopause.
91
Outline, Toma (2008), as an A03 point.
Used personal advertisements to research, found males thought it more acceptable to lie about their education and income than females.
However, Kurzban & Weeden (2005) found females more likely to declare their weight as less than it was.
This illustrates how resource richness is seen as attractive in males, while physical attractiveness as a sign of fertility is seen as attractive in females.
92
Outline, Cartwright (2000), as an A03 point.
Found that women with symmetrical breasts were more fertile than more asymmetrically breasted women
This supports the idea that body symmetry indicates reproductive fitness.
93
Outline, Penton-Voak et al (2001), as an A03 point.
Additional support for Cartwright (2000) comes from Penton-Voak et al. (2001), who found that females prefer males with greater facial symmetry, an indication of developmental stability that would be passed on to their sons, increasing reproductive potential.
94
Outline, Langlois and Roggman (1990), as an A03 point.
Used computer-composite images to produce faces of varying symmetrical quality, finding a preference for symmetrical faces, faces identical in shape and form on both sides.
This applied to both male and female faces.
Cartwright (2000) supported this, finding that men prefer photographs of women with symmetrical faces and vice versa.
95
How does Cartwright's (2000) study make sense from an evolutionary view?
From an evolutionary view, this makes sense as they would want a greater chance of passing on genes and characteristics.
It seems that males can be sexually aroused for long periods of time with the introduction of different females.
It makes evolutionary sense for a male to have multiple partners, each of whom can produce a baby for him.
96
What did Buss (1993) believe about mate guarding?
Believes while men are fearful of partners being sexually unfaithful, females worry about emotional unfaithfulness, due to a fear of their partner spending resources on other females.
97
Outline the research by Dunbar and Waynforth (1995)
Used a content analysis method of 900 personal dating ads across four USA newspapers.
Found 42% of males looking for 'youthful' mates compared to 25% of females.
Men were more likely to emphasise their economic status in their own adverts, women were more likely to emphasise their looks.
This supports the evolutionary theories of females being more attracted to status and resources, with men advertising these, and males are looking for females capable of reproduction.
