Set #4 Flashcards
Describe the rise of the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya.
Around 321 BCE, the Nanda dynasty was toppled by Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan dynasty and what became the Mauryan empire (c. 321 - 185 BCE). The emperor Chandragupta won a great deal of new territory, uniting vast regions of India under one ruler for the first time. The empire included much of India and part of Afghanistan. Some of Chandragupta’s expansion included lands won by Alexander the Great and his successors the Seleucids. The Seleucid’s attempts brought them into the path of the Mauryans, but Seleucus I Nicator ceded his claims to lands around the Indus in a pact with Chandragputa in 305 BCE. Hellenistic (Greek) culture continued in parts of northern India, while Chandragupta based his administration partly on the Persian Achaemenid model. His highly efficient and impressive centralized system also owed much to his minister, Chanakya, who produced one of the greatest treatises on politics, administration, and economics ever written – the Arthashastra.
Describe the death of Chandragupta Maurya, and the reign and life of Bindusara.
Under Chandragupta, backed by strong military resources and an effective secret service, agriculture and trade flourished in his Mauryan empire. He died around 297 BCE, having fasted to death. As a convert to Jainism, he spent his final days in ascetic repentance for a terrible famine that struck his people, which he was grief-stricken about being unable to hold back. The second emperor was Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara (c. 297 - 265 BCE). Little is known of his reign, but it seems that he successfully expanded Mauryan territories south into the Deccan, so that only the southern tip of India, plus the Kalinga area in the east (now in the Orissa state), were not incorporated in the empire.
Describe the rise, reign, and life of Ashoka.
Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, the third emperor of the Mauryan empire (c. 265 - 232 BCE) was the last major ruler of the Mauryan dynasty and one of the great figures of ancient history. It was Ashoka who brought the empire to its greatest extent, gaining the Kalinga region after a particularly bloody battle. Ashoka is seen as presiding over a golden age. As his empire prospered, he promoted the arts and sciences and instigated a vast building program. This included a great many stupas (mound-shaped shrines), built to house supposed relics of Buddha. At some point in his reign, Ashoka converted to the fast-growing religion of Buddhism. According to a story that mirrors the tale of his grandfather’s repentance, he converted in remorse at the waste and bloodshed of the Kalinga War, turning his back on violence and embracing the peaceful Buddhist way of life. He sent missionaries to spread the word throughout Asia, including Sri Lanka, and in so doing played a major role in the development of Buddhism. He also spread the word through his edicts – sayings inscribed on stone pillars and rocks across India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. These set out his principles of peace, morality, respect, and humane rule, and of being the father who guides his people’s spiritual welfare.
Describe the decline of the Mauryan empire and the aftermath of its fall.
The peace and prosperity of Ashoka’s reign did not last long after his death. Subsequent rulers lost territories and prestige, and there were squabbles over the succession. The last Mauryan emperor, Brihadratha, was assassinated c. 185 BCE by his chief aide, Pusyamitra, founder of the Sunga dynasty, which ruled central India until 73 BCE. India started reverting to its chaotic, divided pre-Mauryan history. Small kingdoms arose in northern India, among them those of the so-called “Indo-Greek” rulers. The most famous of these was Menander (c. 155 - 130 BCE), who may have battled with the Sungas.
Describe India’s history starting from the 1st century CE through the Gupta empire and up to the decline of the Guptas.
The 1st - 3rd centuries CE saw the Kushans from the steppes of Central Asia ruling in the north while small dynasties came and went elsewhere. As these crumbled, the way was paved for the great empire of the Guptas. Around 320 CE, the region of Magadha gave birth to the Guptas, another great dynasty and empire, who dominated northern India until c. 540 CE. The Gupta dynasty’s real empire-builders were its first two kings, Chandra Gupta I (c. 320 - 330), and his son, Samudra Gupta (c. 330 - 380). Great artistic achievements of this well-administered, prosperous empire include the Ajanta cave paintings in western India, some of which show episodes from the life of Buddha. The Gupta era is often seen as a “classical” period of Indian culture, especially of Hindu and Buddhist art. The Guptas had a strong Hindu learning, but Jainism and Buddhism also flourished. The classical image of Buddha developed, with a peaceful, reflective expression and curls flat against his head. Jain and Buddhist monks also created wonderful sculpted friezes at the Udayagiri caves. Wealthy patrons also encouraged architecture, dance, drama, and Sanskrit epics, while great advances were made in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, logic, and medicine. Under the fourth Gupta ruler, Kumara Gupta (c. 415 - 455 CE), cracks began to appear in the empire as it face incursions by Hepthalite nomads (or “White Huns”) from the north. By the 6th century, the Guptas had pulled back to their original heartland, and India was again a patchwork of kingdoms.
Describe the events and history leading up to the Qin state in China.
As China moved out of the Bronze Age, the Shang were defeated by the Zhou dynasty (1027 - 256 BCE), the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history. During the Zhou period, bronze was widely used and iron was introduced. The Zhou dynasty saw the birth of the major Chinese philosophies, including Confucianism, and a system of government much like the European feudalism of the Middle Ages. The Zhou rapidly disintegrated into a number of independent states, and from 481 BCE, the start of the era known as the Warring States Period, regional warlords were conquering smaller states around them to consolidate their rule.
Describe the rise of the Qin state.
One of the territories to survive the Warring State period was the state of Qin. The people of Qin were situated west of the Zhou territory along the Yellow River valley. In 316 BCE, Qin began a series of campaigns against the other warring states, and in 221 BCE the king of Qin defeated the last remaining state and declared himself Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of the Qin.
Describe the rise and influence of legalism in Qin China.
In 356 BCE, long before the Qin had even begun to consider the surrounding states, Lord Shang, an exponent of Legalist ideas, became chief minister of the Qin. The Legalists opposed the Confucian ideals of filial piety and kingly benevolence. Instead, the argued that the interests of the state came before those of individuals, that rulers should apply strict laws and punishments, and that the use of war as an instrument of state policy was acceptable. Lord Shang began a program of Legalist reform in the state of Qin, where all adult males were registered for military service. The First Emperor was an advocate of Legalism. During his reign, Li Si, the chief minister, put Legalist principles into practice and introduced measures that are still in effect throughout China today. Among these measures were the abolition of feudal fiefs, the standardization of the written script, the application of a strict legal code, the establishment of official measures for weights and lengths, the issuance of a unified currency, and even the regulation of the width of roads.
Describe the expansion and construction projects of Qin China.
Though the Qin empire had already been established through the conquest of the Warring States, Qin expansion continued southward. Expeditions were sent to modern Guangdong, on the south coast of China, and Chinese colonies were established there. After campaigning against the steppe peoples in the north, the emperor ordered his general Meng Tian to construct a great wall to establish control over the Ordos region of Inner Mongolia, in order to help repel further invasions from the steppes. This was the first phase of the Great Wall of China, which was later rebuilt during the Ming dynasty. Meng Tian also constructed the Straight Road, which ran 500 miles north from the capital Xianyang to the Ordos region to facilitate movement of military troops. As well as constructions to advance China’s defenses, Qin Shi Huang also commissioned many grand public building projects – including palaces, bridges, and canals – to strengthen imperial rule in China.
Describe Qin Shi Huang’s search for immortality and his famous mausoleum.
As he grew old, the emperor became obsessed with finding the key to immortality. This obsession led him to the most ambitious building project commissioned by Qin Shi Huang – the creation of his own mausoleum – which began in 212 BCE. According to the description recorded a century later by the Grand Historian, Sima Qian, the tomb contained a model of the empire, which had rivers of quicksilver and a mechanism for operating the tides, and was guarded by traps designed to kill intruders after the tomb was sealed. Not far from this burial chamber (which has yet to be excavated) stood the terra-cotta army, a legion of life-size pottery soldiers constructed to defend the emperor in death. Qin Shi Huang died in 210 BCE on an expedition to the east of China in search of the island of Penglai, where immortals were believed to reside.
Describe the collapse of Qin China, its legacy, and the new regime that came after it.
After the death of the First Emperor, his son took power, but he was never as effective a ruler as his father, and he was forced to commit suicide by his chief minister two years later. China crumbled into civil unrest and much of Qin Shi Huang’s work was lost. Palace archives were burned, destroying evidence of the period. Revolts and uprisings led to the demise of the dynasty less than twenty years after it had begun. The Han empire that followed the Qin dynasty rejected Legalist ideas in favor of Confucianism, but the expectation that China should be one unified state remains strong up to the present day. Additionally, the First Emperor is usually portrayed very negatively in most histories, with attention drawn to his cruelty and obsession with immortality. However, in more recent years, modern China has come to reevaluate Qin Shi Huang’s aims and achievements in political and social terms.
Describe the rise of the Han after the fall of the Qin.
The autocratic actions of China’s First Emperor alienated the population, and his successors were unable to quell the widespread rebellion that broke out against them. Qin Shi Huang’s son, the Second Emperor, was influenced by the eunuch Zhao Gao, who persuaded him to execute the First Emperor’s chief minister Li Si. The Second Emperor was forced to commit suicide in 207 BCE and was succeeded by his son. By this time rebellion had spread and the Qin dynasty ended. Liu Bang, who came from a poor peasant family, rose to prominence as the leader of a rebel band. At first he supported Xiang Yu, an aristocrat who hoped to revive the feudal states. In 206 BCE Liu Bang captured Xianyang, the Qin capital, negotiated the surrender of the last Qin ruler, and announced the repeal of the severe Qin penal codes. His treatment of the inhabitants earned him a reputation for fairness, but when Xiang Yu arrived, the city was looted and the royal family killed. The rebel leaders quarreled, and for the next four years they campaigned against each other. Although Liu Bang’s forces suffered defeats, he continued to gather allies, and in 202 BCE he won a decisive victory at Gaixia in modern Anhui.
Describe the reign of Liu Bang and the beginnings of the Han empire.
Liu Bang assumed the title of “huangdi” or sovereign emperor, and used Han as the title of the new dynasty. He is usually known as Emperor Gaozu. During his reign, which lasted until 195 BCE, many of the features of the Chinese imperial system took shape. Gaozu began his reign by announcing an amnesty and measures to restore peace. In the west and in the area around the new capital he established at Chang’an, he continued Qin practices, applying direct rule in the form of commanderies (districts ruled by a centrally appointed governor). But in the east and south he initially accepted the existence of ten kingdoms whose rulers professed allegiance to him, although he later replaced them with member of his own family. In the commanderies he rewarded senior officials, military leaders, and leaders of non-Chinese groups who had submitted to the Han, by offering them the rank of marquis. This title allowed them to collect taxes for the state, retaining part of the money for themselves. Gaozu also formalized the system of bureaucratic government introduced under the Qin. Gaozu was contemptuous of scholars, but he recognized the importance of the Confucian ideals and of education and public service. In 196 BCE, he issued an edict on the recruitment of able persons to the imperial government.
Who was Wudi? Describe his life and reign.
Wudi was the sixth Han emperor. In 124 BCE, he established an imperial academy where 50 students studied the classics in preparation for an examination. Those who passed became eligible for official appointments. During Wudi’s long reign (147 - 87 BCE) China made extensive territorial gains. The emperor’s first concern, however, was to secure his northern border against an invasion by the Xiongnu, a confederacy of nomadic steppe peoples originating in Mongolia. In 166 BCE, they had penetrated to within 100 miles of Chang’an. In 138 BCE, Wudi sent an envoy, Zhang Qian, to contact the Yuezhi, the traditional enemies of the Xiongnu, in the hope of forming an alliance. Zhang Qian failed to obtain their assistance, but his journey extended Chinese influence for the first time into the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang), helping establish trading links with Persia and opening up the Silk Road. Wudi’s greatest conquest were to the northeast and the south of the existing empire. In 128 BCE he sent an expedition to Korea, and 20 years later a longer campaign led to the establishment of four commanderies in the north of the peninsula. In 111 BCE he sent an expedition south to Guangzhou, and subsequently commanderies were established to administer the territory of the modern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi and north Vietnam. All these military campaigns naturally cost money, so Wudi decided to augment tax revenues by imposing a state monopoly on salt and iron. This provoked a complicated debate over the degree to which the government should interfere in the economy.
Describe the decline and end of Wudi’s reign and the decline and usurpation of the Han empire.
Wudi became obsessed with his search for immortality as he grew old. After his death the dynasty went into a period of decline, marked by weak emperors and the excessive influence of the court eunuchs. One of the eunuch’s main duties was the care of the numerous imperial concubines, any of whose sons could be named to succeed the emperor. This led to palace intrigues in which the eunuchs played an increasingly significant role. The economy, meanwhile, suffered from financial mismanagement, and there was widespread tax evasion. A further blow came in the early years of the 1st century CE with serious flooding of the Yellow River, which led to its changing to its southern course in 11 CE. In 9 CE Wang Mang, who had been acting as regent for a succession of child emperors, usurped the throne. He ordered large private estates to be broken up, but was killed in 23 CE.
