Set #3 Flashcards
Describe the fall of the Roman Republic after the assassination of Julius Caesar.
In 44 BCE, Julius Caesar was assassinated. His successors, the Roman general Mark Antony and his adopted son, Octavian, couldn’t cooperate, and a civil war between them broke out. The Roman Empire was split into Octavian’s territory in the West and Mark Antony’s in the East. Octavian eventually defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. A year later, Octavian took over Egypt and became supreme in the Roman state.
Describe the early part of the reign of Octavian.
By 27 CE, Octavian became the first Roman “emperor”, taking the name “Augustus”. Although he kept republican pretensions around, Augustus, in reality, held supreme power. While Augustus retained parts of the republican system of government, he grafted his own autocracy onto it.
Describe the scope and consolidation of the Roman Empire at the end of the 1st century CE.
The Roman Empire spread over a vast area that took in all of the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and a large chunk of northern and central Europe. In the first two centuries of imperial rule, there were probably 50 million people living in Roman lands. Most of these lands had been annexed during the republic, but the Empire consolidated these holdings and added a few new provinces, although these new gains were also the first to be given up later on. Britain, Dacia (modern Romania), Assyria, and Mesopotamia (Iraq) were short-lived gains compared to other territories. Roman rulers were quick to crush any rebellion or threat (from outside or within), often brutally. This is one reason the Empire was relatively stable during this time. The expansion achieved during this time was greatly helped by emperors such as Trajan and Claudius. Another factor in maintaining these lands was the Roman’s legendary military might. Crucially, the empire had a standing army, unlike during the republic. It was a professional, highly organized, and skilled machine, and loyal to the emperor.
Describe the Roman Empire’s urban life, way of ruling, engineering, and architecture.
Ancient Roman civilization was highly urbanized, with a vast network of prosperous cities, filled with beautiful buildings that usually mirrored the city of Rome itself, such as temples and a public forum. The empire’s extensive territories were divided into provinces ruled by governors called proconsuls or praetors who ruled in the emperor’s name. By the 3rd century CE, separate leaders attended to military matters. Within these provinces, cities looked much like Roman ones and were run according to Roman law. One key feature of the 2nd-century empire was the rising status of these provinces and their great cities. Imperial Rome also had an impressive trade, communication, and travel network made possible by the Roman’s unique talent for engineering – new roads, bridges, viaducts, and aqueducts were built throughout the empire. Imperial Rome took the Roman’s love of impressive grandeur to a peak, proclaiming their wealth and power to the world. Augustus oversaw the transformation of Rome, saying he “found [it] a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.” Many magnificent structures were built. This was made possible due to expertise in arch construction and the discovery of cement (limestone and clay) to make concrete. Impressive constructions during the empire included the Colosseum, the enormous dome of the Pantheon, long aqueducts and viaducts (bridges), and harbors such as Caesarea Maritima in Judea in the Middle East. Other monumental imperial structures included the Forum of Augustus (Rome’s principal public meeting place); Trajan’s Column (completed in 113 CE, its reliefs celebrated two victories over the Dacians) and Constantine’s Ark, finished in 315 CE, to mark the military might of the emperor Constantine I. The triumphal ark is a form the Roman Empire made its own, and it has been copied up to the present day.
List some of the reasons the Roman Empire declined.
First, the Antonine Plague (possibly smallpox) struck around 165 CE and lasted for around 15 years. 5 million people were estimated to have lost their lives, including two emperors. One consequence was a weakening of the social fabric of the empire. Second, the years from 235 to 284 CE were a chaotic time beset by a series of crises. A rapid succession of emperors were murdered one after the other. Meanwhile, a variety of problems beset certain parts of the empire, including starvation, plague, inflation, high taxation, and “barbarian” attacks. Some regions, such as Gaul (France) and Britain, started to assert their own interest and threaten imperial authority. Such chaos made it easier for others to seize control, such as Queen Zenobia of Palmyra (modern Syria) in 272 to 273 CE. This period of crisis ended in 284 CE, when the Roman general Diocletian made himself emperor. Diocletian created the first imperial college of four emperors (the Tetrarchy) to oversee four sections of the empire. Diocletian issued an edict in 301 to attempt to stabilize the empire’s economy. The secon Tetrarchy broke down and partly prefigured the empire’s later split into east and west in 395 CE. Finally, in the early part of the 4th century CE, Roman emperor Constantine (280 - 370 CE) established a “second Rome” at Byzantium (modern Istanbul), renaming it Constantinople.
Describe the evolution of the Roman army from the time of the republic through the empire.
In the days of the Republic, the army was staffed by volunteers from the aristocratic families. They provided their own weapons and uniforms and trained for five or six years. Small units of men (centuries) worked as a team. They worked and lived together and fought with iron discipline. As Roman power expanded, however, a professional army became necessary. The general Marius made many reforms, including opening the army to all. The practice of giving a piece of land to retired soldiers is also attributed to Marius. Caesar oversaw a professional and well-led military force that Augustus maintained, with a stable number of legions to make up the army that would safeguard the empire. Length of service was standardized to 20 years.
Describe life in the Roman army.
Although the life of a Roman soldier was dangerous and brutal, many saw it as an escape from poverty. It was also a way for those without money to gain political power and influence. Young men were expected to do military service as part of their education. Those from wealthier families saw it as a step on the ladder to public office. Soldiers were not allowed to marry formally, although if a soldier did take up with a local woman while stationed in a far-off part of the empire and they were together when he retired, the woman would be granted Roman citizenship in her own right. Although the army was widely feared, it was scrupulously disciplined and generally dealt fairly with locals. Supplies were paid for, not taken.
Describe the training and fitness exercises Roman soldiers had to go through.
Roman soldiers were expected to march 20 miles a day, carrying all their equipment, which may have weighed 60 lbs, or more – earning them the nickname “Marius’ Mules”. Modern studies have estimated the weight based on rations for 16 days and the weight of a full set of equipment. At the end of a day spent marching, they often had to set up a fortified military camp for the night, digging boundary ditches and setting up tents. Skilled engineers within the ranks also built bridges and roads to reach a destination. Training in physical fitness involved running, swimming, wrestling, and throwing games. Exercises designed to build stamina might last for two days without rest. The men also practiced military drills and training, as in battle every soldier would be expected to follow commands and fight in formation.
When did Julius Caesar live?
100 - 44 BCE
When did Augustus live?
63 BCE - 14 CE
What important change in classical art occurred during the Classical era of Greek history?
During the Classical period (c. 480 - 323 BCE), sculpture began to show greater realism than the idealized style of earlier periods.
Describe the rise of realism in classical Greek art.
Classical styles continued into the Hellenistic period, but idealization and beauty began to be seen as less important. Images appeared depicting characters from everyday life, such as a woman at a market or a boy strangling a goose. Workshops in the ancient world at this time produced statues of all styles, in clay, marble, and bronze. These sold all over the world, to a rising number of private patrons. Before the Hellenistic era there had been little sense of “art” as a separate creative entity – statues were made to mark a grave, glorify a temple, or commemorate a war; vases often had practical uses. However, wealthy buyers who had seen statues of famous figures now wanted a portrait of themselves, or figures to decorate their villas. Seeing different styles gave rise to the first sense of a “history of art”.
Describe Roman art and its relationship to Greek art.
Many of the Greek statues that survive today are actually Roman copies. In many ways the Romans simply copied the art of the Greeks, although they later went on to create their own artistic identity. Ancient Greek painting has been lost (except for vase painting), but many surviving Roman wall paintings give an idea of the lost art. The art of floor mosaics using tiny pieces of colored stone was invented by the Greeks, but it is the Romans who are famous for their mosaic work.
Briefly describe the history of Egypt between the fall of the New Kingdom and Egypt’s conquest by Alexander.
After the New Kingdom, Egypt suffered a series of invasions. After the Assyrians were finally ousted, native Egyptian pharaohs ruled over an Egyptian renaissance – the Saite era (c. 664 - 525 BCE). Achaemenid Persians dominated in the years 525 to 400 BCE. The Egyptians then took back power and ruled until 343 BCE, when the Persians returned to defeat Nectanebo II, the last native Egyptian pharaoh. Finally, in 332 BCE, Alexander the Great seized Egypt from Darius III when he conquered the Persian empire.
Describe the origins of Ptolemaic Egypt and life in Egypt during this period.
When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, Egypt was part of his empire, and its control passed to one of his trusted generals, Ptolemy Lagus, who had been the governor there. By 304 BCE, Ptolemy was king of Egypt, and his descendants would rule there for 300 years. The “Ptolemiac” period of Greek rule in Egypt came at a time when Greek culture had a wide influence across the Middle East and Mediterranean – a movement known as Hellenism. Ever since the Mycenaean times there had been a Greek presence in Egypt, and the Greek-educated Ptolemies created a distinctively Greek court and system of administration. However, the Ptolemies did not force their culture on the Egyptians. The ruling class led a Greek lifestyle, but the other layers of society continued to be culturally Egyptian. Furthermore, the Greek rulers adopted local customs and styled themselves as native monarchs, taking the title of pharaoh. They even built Egyptian-style temples and worshiped native gods. This strategy led to stability and reforms in Egypt. Regional administration was organized using the existing Egyptian “nome” system of districts. The Ptolemies also strove to replace the old barter system with a form of monetary banking, created state monopolies on certain goods, and zealously explored trade opportunities. Ptolemy I moved Egypt’s capital from Memphis to Alexandria, where it remained for 900 years. Alexandria’s position on the north coast opened up Egypt to the trade and cultures of the Mediterranean. With its legendary library, Alexandria also became the center of Greek learning.
