Session 1 Flashcards
What does metastasis mean ?
it means a secondary tumor growth, in a different location to the primary tumor
what do grade and type of cancer mean ?
grade - poorly differentiated, or moderatley differentiated, or well differentaited (looks like what it was, easier to treat, less likely to have spread)
Stage - TNM
tumour stage
nodes - are there/ how many nodes are there
metastases - are there any - yes or no
outline the process of producing a histological sample
- Fixation - use Formalin to fix the tissue
- select the relevant sections of tissue
- harden in molten Parrafin wax, then cool it- hardens sample to allow microtome to slice into very thin slices
- Stain with heamatoxylin (neuclei purple) and eosin ( cytoplasm blue)
- mounting - cover with slip to preserve
- diagnose
outline the process of immunohistochemistry ?
label substances with an antibody joined to an enzyme that will catalayse a colour producing reaction - to see what the certain tissue is metabolising an if this is normal
what kind of things can cause cellular injury ?
hypoxia - lack of O2
Radiation, Burns, or severe cold, direct trauma, micro-organisms, toxins, chemicals, drugs
outline what hypoxia is, and the 4 types
hypoxia is simply a lack of O2
Ischamic hypoxia - interuppted blood supply, due to a blocked vessel ect
aneamic hypoxia - haemoglobin cannot carry enough oxygen
hypoxaemic hypoxia - arterial content of oxygen is low - ie lung disease gives reduced absorption
histicytic hypoxia - inability to use O2 due to disables oxidative phosphorylation enzymes - ie CN posion
some cells - neurons can only survive without O2 for minutes others such as fibroblasts hours
the 4 areas of a cell to focus on in cell injury ?
1 . cell membrane
- Neucleus
- Proteins
- Mitochondria
outline what happens at a molecular level during hypoxia
ie an ischemic blockage
NO O2 —- Oxidative Phos in mitochondria stops
cell prouduces Less ATP
the Na/K pump and others needs ATP to function so it will slow/stop - Na, Ca and H2O enters cell, K+ leaves cells
causes cellular swelling, loss of microvilli, blebs form, ER swells, Myelin Figures
the lack of ATP will trigger an increase in glycolysis - this will increase cellular PH - lactic acid build up, enzymes within cell stop functioning
ribosmones will detach from the ER - reduction in protein sythesis
IN PROLONGED HYPOXIA
increase in Ca2+ in cytoplasm is toxic an dhas many effects
it will increase membrane permeability ,and it will activate enzymes such as ATPase, endoneuclease (damaged chromatin), phospholipase, Protease - disrupts proteins
outline the free radical process
mainly MEH
ROS - superoxide and hyroxyl radical and RNS
normally ROS balanced with body systems - anti oxidant scavangers such as VIT A, C and E
enzymes that neutralise free radicals - superoxide dimutase, catalase, gluatione preoxidase
damage occurs when there is oxidative imbalance from raditaion or chemicals ect
proteins and lipid memebranes and DNA can be oxidised
heat shock proteins attemtps to mend mis folded proteins - proteins repair such as ubiquitin
outline how injured and dying cells look under microscopes - what do you see
reversible injiury - less pink - watery chytoplasm - chromatin clumping
blebs, swelling, chromatin clumping, mitochondrial swelling, ER swelling, Ribosomes dispersed
DEAD
Pyknosis - Nuclear shrinkage
Karyorrhexis - nuclear fragmentation
Karyolysis - no nucleus
lysosomes rupture - enzmyes leaks into the cells
myelin figures
Define oncosis
cell death with swelling
define necrosis
changes that occur in an organism some time after death
what are the types of necrosis ?
what is an infarction
Coagulative necrosis - caused by protein denaturation - ischamea of solid organs - ghost outline of cells
Liquefactive necrosis - ischemia in loose tissues - presence of many neutrophils - enzyme degregation leads to enzymic digestion - ie in brain
Caseous - cheese like, conatains amorphus debris and Fat necrosis - fat digestion
an infartction is an obstruction of blood supply to a tisse
