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Session 1 Flashcards

0
Q

What is dark field?

A

Light refracted from organelles.
Tests for malaria & syphillis

Advantage: live unstained sample

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1
Q

What is phase contrast microscopy?

A

Uses interference effect when 2 sets of waves combine.
Waves passing in are bright and out phase are dark. Waves passing through cell are duller hence contrast gives image.

Advantage: enhances unstained image

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2
Q

What is Fluorescene?

A

Using uv light and fluorescent markers on antibodies to detect specific shapes.
Can see micro tubules, actin filaments, and metaphase chromosomes with a dye that fluorescences when DNA is bound

Advantage: multiple fluorescent stains on one specimen

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3
Q

What is Confocal Microscopy?

A

More than 1 fluorescent probe, optical sections using a laser across the specimen. This provides a collect of 2D images that is electronically constructed into a 3D image. This method is non-invasive.

Advantage: removes out of focus flares and living specimen and 3D

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4
Q

What is Direct Incision Biopsy used for?

A

Soft tissue. Eg breast, CT, fat, tumours and muscle

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5
Q

What is Currettage and what is it used for?

A

Scraping of cells

Used for skin and tumours

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6
Q

What is endoscopic used for?

A

Intestines, trachea and bladder.

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7
Q

What is Shinkage Artifact?

A

The processing and fixing of tissues causing the tissues to pulled away from each other hence tears hence produces an empty space

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8
Q

What are tissues fixed?

A

To prevent putrification, to preserve cells from lysomes digestion

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9
Q

What are two chemicals used for tissue fixing?

A

Gluteraldehyde & formaldehyde - preserves cross-linked cellular structures.
Also Xylene and ethanol.

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10
Q

What is the tissue embedded in during fixing?

A

Embedded at 56C in wax

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11
Q

What cuts the embedded tissue sample?

A

Microtome using a steel blade, cuts sample into a ribbon of sections

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12
Q

What is histology?

A

Study of the structure of tissue using specialised staining techniques and combining light and elctron microscopy.

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13
Q

What is a biopsy?

A

The removal of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination

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14
Q

What does Periodic-Acid Schiff stain?

A

Carbohydrates, glycoproteins, mucus-producing cells and goblet cells MAGENTA

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15
Q

What is epithelia?

A

Sheets of continuous cells of varied embryonic origins, that cover the external surfaces and lines the internal surfaces. It is connected to basement membrane.

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16
Q

What are external surfaces?

A

Skin and cornea

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17
Q

What are internal surfaces that are exposed to external?

A

GI, respiratory, genitourinary

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18
Q

Internal surfaces, no external?

A

Pericardium and Pleural sac, peritoneum, blood and lymphatic vessels

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19
Q

What is the basement membrane?

A

Thin, strong and flexible accelluar layer between epithelia and connective tissue

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20
Q

Characteristics of basement membrane?

A

The thickness is determined by the thickness of the reticular fibril layer connected by surrounding CT.
Strong layer for epithelia to attach to
Cellular and molecular filter
Degree of some cancers determined by extent of penetration of basement membrane, eg melanoma

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21
Q

What is the adventitia?

A

The thin outermost layer of CT in the oesophogus

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22
Q

What Pilicae circulares?

A

Circular folds of mucosa and submucosa that project into the hit lumen in Jejunum of s. Intestine

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23
Q

What happens to the distal swellings of the Golgi?

A

They pinch off as migratory Golgi vacuoles

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24
What is the limit of resolution?
The minimum distance required to distinguish between two objects and proportional to wavelength
25
Resolution of light microscope?
0.2um
26
Resolution of electron microscope?
0.002um
27
Out of peroxisomes and lysosomes, which is darker?
Peroxisomes are darker
28
Structure and function of bilipid?
Cell memebrane, aliphatic Impermeable barrier to most water Soluble molecules. Proteins dissolved in layer mediate other functions of memebrane
29
Glycocalyx
Cell coat made of oligosaccharideband polysaccharide side chains on plasma membrane which provide the cell specificity for: Communication and adhesion to neighbouring cells and substrate, mobility, movement and division
30
Structure and function of Plasma memebrane
``` Selective permeability Transport of material along cell surface Exo and endocytosis Intercellular adhesion and recognition Signal transduction ```
31
Nucleus function?
Store DNA Co-ordinate cell activities - metab,more than, protein synthesis and mitosis Mostly chromatin, unstructured form DNA that organises into chromosomes during mitosis
32
Structure and function of nuclear envelope?
Doubled layer memebrane sper eating nucleus constant and cytoplasm. Contains pores allow pass back and forth of specific shaped sized molecules. Attached to network of tumbles called ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
33
Structure and function of nucleous?
Synthesis of ribosomes
34
Structure and function of rER?
Membrane continuous with outer layer of nuclear envelope. Membrane bound vesicles shuttle proteins from rER to Golgi - into an glycosylation N-linked Lysosomal enzymes with mannose 6-phosphate marker added to CIS-Golgi Screwed proteins
35
Structure and function of sER?
Found in liver, mammary gland, ovary, adrenal gland and testes for lipid synthesis and steroidogenesis
36
Protein movement through Golgi?
Vestige bud to convex CIS face. Polarity means proteins migrate from CIS to concave TRANS. Golgi modifies, sorts concentrates and packages protein. Proteins leave Trans for lysomes assembly or secretion. Secretory vesicles condense into granules and release.
37
Structure and function of lysosomes?
Acid Hydrolases at ph5. Contain nuclearases, protease, lipases. It's membrane proteins are highly glycosylation for protection.
38
What are residual bodies?
Lysosomes have digested contents but have indigestible remnants.
39
What are primary lysosomes?
Endocytosis with membrane bound vesicles (phagosomes) or autophagosomes, or excess secretory product to form SECONDARY LYSOSOMES in which contents degrade
40
Function of peroxisomes?
Sites of oxygen utilisation and H2O2 production Detoxify toxic molecules that are in bloodstream Present in all cells Oxidises alcohol, phenol, formaldehyde
41
What is in the matrix of mitochondria?
Name of kerbs, FA cycles, DNA, RNA, ribosomes and calcium granules. Similar to bacteria in terms of DNA
42
Types of cytoskelton?
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Micro tubules
43
Role of cytoskeleton?
Main thing and changing cell shape. Provides Structural support to plasma and organelles Movement for organelles etc Locomotor for lymphocytes, cilia and flagella Contractibility in muscles
44
Structure of microfilaments?
``` 5nm 2 strings of actin twisted Associated with ATP Assemble and dissociate Allow microvilli maintain shape ```
45
Structure microtubules?
13 alpha and beta sub unit polymers to form wall of hollow microtubules, Originate from centrosome Found where structures in cell moved Attachment proteins (dynein and kinesin) attach to organelles and move them alone the microtubules
46
What is the structure of intermediate filaments?
Not dynamic, like microfilaments. 10-12nm Common in nerve and neurological cells And in epithelial cells made of CYTOKERATIN Forms string tough supporting mesh work in cytoplasm and anchored to plasma membrane at strong intracellular junctions
47
What does Haematoxylin and Eiosin stain?
Stains basic components pink - cytoplasm, extracellular proteins as eosinophilic Stains acidic components blue - nucleic acids, chromatin as are basophilic
48
What is the limit of resolution for light microscope?
0.2um
49
What's the limit of resolution for electron miscoscope?
0.002nm
50
Simple squamous epithelia location?
Respiratory - alveoli Body cavities- pericardium, peritoneum, pleural sac mesothelium Blood and lymphatic vessels - endothelium Bowman's capsule and loop of henle Inner and middle ear
51
Function of Simple squamous epithelia?
Active transport via pinocytosis Barrier Exchange of gases, nutrients, fluid, metabolites Lubrication- body cavities ie pericardium
52
Location of Simple cuboidal?
Thyroid follicles Surface of ovaries Kidney tubules The small ducts of many exocrine glands
53
Function of simple cuboidal?
Barrier covering Absorption and conduit - exocrine Absorption and secretion - kidney Hormone synthesis, storage and mobilisation
54
Location of simple columnar?
``` Stomach lining and gastric glands Gallbladder Small intestine and colon Uterus Oviducts Large ducts of many exocrine gland Ductus Efferentes of testis ```
55
Function of the simple columnar cells?
Absorption - s intestine colon gallbladder Secretion - exocrine, gastric glands, stomach lining Lubrication - s intestine and colon Transport - oviducts
56
What other feature may be on simple columnar?
Microvilli
57
Function of microvilli?
Increase the surface area. Also gap junctions Also occludens binds the plasma memebrane tightly at the apical portions of epithelia to prevent the passing of membrane proteins through ZONA OCCLUDINS. Restrict proteins to apical and segregate basal and lateral portions.
58
Location of non-keratinised stratified squamous?
``` Oral cavity Oesophagus Larynx Vagina Anal canal Surface of cornea Inner surface of eyelids ```
59
Function of of non-keratinised stratified squamous?
Protect against mechanical abrasion | Prevent water loss and keep surfaces moist
60
Keratinised stratified squamous
Surface of skin Protects against microbes, abrasion, water loss and UV light
61
Location of pseudostratified squamous?
``` Nasal cavity Trachea Bronchi Auditory tubes Large excretory ducts Epididymis ```
62
Function of pseudostratified squamous?
Secretion Absorption Muscle secretion Particle trapping
63
microvilli also contain?
Junctional complexes
64
Pseudo stratified also has?
Cilliated which helps trap mucus and particles and waft them away
65
What is sterocilli?
Very long and thin microvilli for surface area for absorption
66
How do transitional epithelia work?
Long when relaxed. | Stretched means easy urine passage and protection of cells of toxic chemicals
67
Location of transitional cells?
Renal Ureters Bladder Urethra
68
Function of transitional cells?
Distensibility | Protection of tissue from toxic chemicals
69
Can cells regenerate?
High rate for epithelia and spends on location and function Capacity ie skin wounds, and replacing skin and GI and uterine wall cells. Injury accelerates. Epidermis every 28days Small intestine every 4-6 replaced by regenerative cells in base of crypts
70
What is Metaplasia?
Epithelia changing from one type of cell to another stimulated by change in environment Heavy smoking : psuedostratified columnar in respiratory --> stratified squamous Barrett's Esophagus: reflux causes stratified squamous to simple columnar
71
What is neoplasia?
Disease in epithelia gives rise to tumour called CARCINOMA Benign tumours resemble tissue of origin, malignant are altered it abnormal and invade adjacent cells
72
GI tract epithelia?
Simple columnar wi micro villi
73
Reproductive tract epithelia?
Cilliated simple columnar
74
Cell,s in the deepest layer of stratified epithelia?
Basel
75
Minimum diameter of an object in infer to be see as separate by naked eye?
100 um
76
A structure seen in tissue under the microscope that does not exist in the actual living tissue?
Artefact
77
What are mucous glands?
Secrete mucus - mucin are glycosylation polypeptides which stain poorly with H&E
78
What are serous glands?
Secretions and enzymes Watery No mucus Eosinophilic hence good staining
79
What are simple glands?
Ducts that are not branched
80
Where is simple tubular found?
Intestine
81
Simple soiled tubular?
Merocrine sweat glands
82
Branched tubular?
Gastric glands | Mucous glands of oesophagus and younger and duedunom
83
Simple alveolar?
During development, not in adults
84
Simple branched alveolar?
Sebaceous glands secreting oil to hair
85
What doe alveolar glands look like?
Bunches of grapes
86
What are the cells in glands?
Acinar and ductile
87
Compound tubular?
Mucous glands of mouth and testes
88
Compound alveolar?
Mammary glands
89
Compound tubuloalveolar glands?
Salivary | Respiratory and pancreas glands
90
Where are mesocrine glands found?
Salivary in parotid gland, pancreas and sweat glands
91
What is merocrine secretion?
Membrane bound component. Fuses to plasma memebrane Contacts continue to move into extracellular space Transiently larger membrane, later retrieved
92
What is apocrine secretion?
Non-memebrane bound content often lipid Contacts memebrane and pushes out to form APICAL MEMBRANE Thin layer surrounds and pinches off Plasma membrane hence transients u smaller and hence membrane must be added
93
Where does apocrine secretion occur?
Mammary glands in breast to sceptre milk with aid of myoepithelial cells which push gland
94
What is holocrine secretion?
Disintegration of whole cell Releasing contents And discharge of cell
95
Where does holocrine secretion occur?
Sebaceous oils to fill hair follicle with sebum oil
96
What is transepithelial transport?
In epithelial cells, one end may have endocytosis. Transport vesicles in between across cytoplasm then The lumen side has exocytosis like merocrine
97
What is a gland?
Epithelial cell or age gate of cells specialised for secretion
98
Exocrine glands...?
Secret products (not hormones) into ducts which lead directly to external environment
99
Endocrine glands?
Secrete hormones into blood streams no ducts
100
Examples of exocrine glands?
Goblet cells in Jejunum and colon Parotid gland Submandibular gland
101
Example of endocrine glands?
Pancreas Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal glands
102
What is submandibular gland and location?
Salivary gland located under tongue on floor of mouth
103
What is the parotid gland and its location?
Salivary gland located at the back of the mouth
104
What is mucous membrane?
Epithelia Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae
105
What is lamina propria?
Loss connective tissue surrounded by blood and lymphathic vessels as well as immune cells and some smooth muscle cells
106
What type of muscle is the muscularis mucosae?
Smooth muscle
107
Where are mucous membranes located?
Internal tubing open to exterior ie mucus secreting cells Alimentary Respiratory Urinary tracts
108
What is serous membranes?
Thin | 2 parts - perietal serosa (outer) and visceral serosa (closest to organs)
109
Where are serous membranes located?
Lining closed body cavities Percardium Pleural sac Peritoneum
110
What is contained between the visceral and perietal serous layers?
Lubricating fluids to reduce friction
111
What is in gut mesentry?
Arteries and veins to take up nutrients
112
What cells are in serous membranes?
Simple squamous for lubrication - mesothelium | Thin layer of connective tissue carrying blood vessels and nerves and mucus secreting glands
113
What is submucosa?
Connective tissue after mucosa
114
What is in the submucosa?
Glands Arteries Veins Nerves
115
What is the muscularis externa?
2 layers of smooth muscle Inner circular Outer longitudinal
116
What are Peyers Patches?
Aggregation of lymphocytes in lamina propria. | Found in gut wall
117
What is jejunal mucosa?
The name of the mucosa in small intestines
118
What is he outer layer of the gut wall?
Serosa - mesothelium simple squamous + ct
119
Why is muscularis mucosal important for Oesophagus and gut?
Aids peristalsis to move food
120
What is the Pilicae circulares in Jejunum?
Circular folds of mucosa and submucosa into gut lumen
121
What does jejunem have that aids absorption into small intestine?
Micro villi on epithelia - simple columnar
122
What is the mucosa in stomach?
Gastric mucosa
123
What is rugae?
Folds in gastric mucosa which forms longitudinal ridges in empty stomach - allows expansion of full stomach
124
What are the crypts of Lieberkühns?
Short glands that Lie between the villi of epithelia in large intestine
125
Where are the crypts of Loeberkühns found?
Epithelia of large intestine/ colon
126
What special things are found int large intestine?
Peyers patches which disrupt the epithelia and come form the submucosa
127
What epithelia is in ureters?
Transitional
128
What characteristic of lamina propria?
Fibroelastic to expand
129
What layer does the ureter not have?
Submucosa
130
What are the Type 1&2 cells in alveoli?
Type 1 - squamous for gas exchange | Type 2 - cuboidal for surfactant release to reduce friction
131
How are glands controlled?
Nervous Endocrine - eg ACTH Neurot-endocrine (nervous cells release ATCH) Negative feed back - eg TSH
132
Name an example of a unicellular secretory gland?
Goblet cells
133
What is cystic fibrosis?
A genetic disorder where individual lacks a CFTR gene - Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator- in apical membrane if epithelial cells
134
How does a lack of CFTR gene cause disease?
Cl- transfer compromised hence no transported into lumen. Hence Na+ no exchanged across, hence no osmotic effect to draw water in following sodium. This causes the mucus to become viscous and thick and unable to cough out
135
Talk about cystic fibrosis in new BORNS?
In GI, the mucus is too viscous hence babies unable to pass first faeces - MECONIUM ILEUS
136
How does the GI get affected by CF?
Mucus too viscous hence constipation and invagination of GI in adults
137
How does CF affect the pancreas?
Reduces the secretions of the exocrine as little water makes secretions too thick hence block the duct. This becomes inflamed and fibrotic hence insufficient enzyme release hence malabsorption
138
How does CF affect sweat?
The sweat is salty
139
Where are glands derived from?
Epithelial cells
140
What are the secretory products of glands stored in?
Secretory granules
141
Where are goblet cells found?
Intestinal epithelia- Jejunum | Lining the ducts of simple tubular in large intestine - the crypts of Lieberkühns
142
What are simple glands?
Single unbranched ducts, secretory part of simple glands can be Straight, branched or coiled
143
How many parotid glands are there?
2
144
What type of gland is parotid?
Compound with enzyme secretion stored as zymogen granules in acinar cells
145
What surrounds large multicellular glands?
Connective tissue capsule
146
What is the septa?
Subdivides glands into lobes
147
What is released from the endocrine gamma cells of pancreas?
Somatostatin | Inhibits contractions of GI and gall bladder smooth muscle
148
Structure of Golgi?
Stacks of disc-shaped cisternae with one side flattered and other concave. There are swellings in edges
149
Function of Golgi?
Sorting into different compartments Packaging through content condensation Glycosylation - adding sugars Transport See MGD Protein Processing
150
Where do the products transport to?
Secretory vesicles Retained for lysosomes or entering plasma membrane See MGD Protein Processing
151
Importance of glycocalyx?
Adhesion to substrate and neighbouring cells Communication Contact inhibition of movement and division Mobility of cells Increases specificity
152
What cells do not contain nucleus?
Erythrocytes Stratum corneum Lens fibre cells
153
Replication of peroxisomes?
Self-replicating but no genome of their own
154
What type of connective tissue is the lamina propria?
Loose ct
155
What epithelium is the anus?
Stratified non-keratinised squamous

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