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Introduction To Cell Physiology And Pharmacology > Session 1. 1 - Flow > Flashcards

Session 1. 1 - Flow Flashcards

1
Q

What is physiology

A

The physics of living systems

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2
Q

What is physiology at all levels

A

Involves the study of the flow of matter and energy within and between body systems

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3
Q

How does what happens at the whole body level reflect processes at a cellular level?

A

. What

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4
Q

What do physiologic processes such as flow require

A

Energy

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5
Q

What forms of energy flow between each other

A

Potential energy and kinetic energy energy

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6
Q

What are diseases processes

A

Disturbances to normal flow and utilisation of the body’s energy resources

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7
Q

Interactions are

A

Functional - systems interact to perform work
Dynamic
Very organised directed flow of matter and energy within bio-electrical fields
Flow requires precise control and regulation
Cellular activity is directed and regulated

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8
Q

Why is flow relevant to medicine

A

In every body system, flow is a clinical measurement to determine health and disease
Eg: pulmonary, CV, GI, renal
If blood stops or food blocked

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9
Q

What is the function of pulmonary flow

A

Enable respiratory gas flow
Supply of O2 + removal of CO2 - depending on level of activity
Flows through tracheal -> bronchial-> alveoli
Transfer matched to Cv flow - exercise, so increased demand increased flow

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10
Q

How to measure pulmonary flow

A

Lung capacity (volume)
Peak expiratiry flow rate - how fast gases can move through the airways
Airway resistance

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11
Q

What process do you think of when diagnosing all flow

A

Where is functional deficits?

Listen - measure - imaging - oximetry (eg: how saturated oxygen levels are)

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12
Q

Why might there be airway resistance

A

Accumulation of fluid

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13
Q

What are the possible causes of pulmonary deficit

A

Asthma
COPD
COVID 19

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14
Q

How to treat pulmonary flow

A

Steroids

Cell butamole - increase diameter

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15
Q

What is the function of cardiovascular flow

A

Supply of O2 and removal of CO2
Supply of nutrients to support metabolism, growth, repair
Removal of waste products
Flow matched to demand
Flows heart/lungs - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venules - veins
Pulmonary flow matched to CV flow, increased demand, increased flow

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16
Q

How to measure CV flow

A 
ECG - measure of pump efficiency(changes in electrical field), 
Heart rate x stroke volume = cardiac output (lub dug)
Blood pressure 
Blood biochemistry (cholesterol and resistance to flow)
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17
Q

What are diseases associated with CV deficit

A

CHD
High BP
Cardiac related atherosclerosis

Could use stent

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18
Q

Diagnosis determines

A

Whether to use therapeutics - drugs

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19
Q

What are examples of flow at the molecular level

A

Membrane transporters/channels - regulate flow selectively
Nerve action potent toon - spatial-temporal control of Na+ and K+, type of electrochemical flow
Information

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20
Q

What is potential energy

A

Stored in chemical bonds

Energy released in reaction (ectothermic)

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21
Q

What is potential energy used for

A

Found in the phosphate bond in ATP
concentration gradients across cell membranes, electrochemical gradient I - generates membrane potential
Electrochemical gradient 2 - source for secondary active trasnport
Electric field - act on voltage sensitive proteins
Elastic PE - held in molecular structures for release as mechanical energy, directed movement of structure

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22
Q

The release of PE

A

needs to match the demand for KE - flow control

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23
Q

What is kinetic energy

A

Held in chemical bonds
When broken thermal energy from exothermic reactions is released which can be converted into random Brownian motion (disorganised flow)

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24
Q

What is KE used for

A

Chemical gradient - movement across membrane
Electrochemical gradient - current flow across membrane
Electrochemical energy 2 - current flow+ co transport = secondary active transport
Electrical field - field movement, when moved, there are conformational changes in voltage sensitive proteins
Elastic energy - released as mechanic energy, bring about conformation changes like in actin/myosin, when synchronised, macromolecular movement

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25
Q

Why is glucose considered high energy source

A

Due to the potential energy present in the C-H bonds and C-O

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26
Q

How much energy is given off as heat when mitochondria converts glucose to ATP

A

60% - keep core body temperature

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27
Q

What is potential energy in the form of

A

Chemical bonds

Concentration gradient across membrane

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28
Q

How do small molecules move around

A

Random motion
Eg: H2O, Na+ - rapid brownish motion
Fast

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29
Q

How do larger molecules move around

A

Slower

Eg: phospholipids, proteins

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30
Q

What type of substances can move across a membrane due to the energy provided by the electrochemical gradient

A

Lipid soluble hydrophobic or small polar - O2, CO2, H20 = diffusion
Large polar/ions = facilitated diffusion (need KE form and a protein to bind to)

Both some degree of random motion
Rate is proportional to temperature

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31
Q

How does the sodium/potassium ATPase work?

A

At rest - uses 30-35% of ATP
The chemical bond PE in ATP enables conformational change in ATPase to drive ions against their gradients
Carriers 3na out and 2k into cell
This is electrogenic - contributes to the electrochemical gradient across the cell

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32
Q

What drives the electrochemical gradient in primary active transport

A

The sodium/potassium ATPase

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33
Q

The electrical chemical chadienr is a important source of

A

PE

And has an associated Electric field - further source of PE

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34
Q

What is the Na+/K+ ATPase

A

Primary active transporter

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35
Q

All cells have a

A

Membrane potential

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36
Q

Outside the membrane

A

Positive

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37
Q

Inside the membrane

A

Negative

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38
Q

Due to the difference in electrochemical gradient

A

Current flow occurs
Movement of ions down the gradient (Na in, K out)= membrane potential
Causes localised changes in membrane voltage

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39
Q

How and why do sodium ion and potassium ion channels regulate flow in primary active transport

A

Precisely timed, sometime Na+ dominates (action potential) and sometime K+ dominates (hyper polarisation)
Action potential gives rises to non degrades signal carriage in excitable cells/tissues, which enables synchronous muscle contraction

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40
Q

Action potentials are also known as

A

Neuronal spikes

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41
Q

What drives the electrochemical gradient in xeoncdary active transport

A

Na+/K+ ATPase
Eg: in intestinal epithelial glucose transport
Lots of sodium ions travel out and cause confirmational change to drive co-transport of glucose inside the cell

42
Q

What energy source is used for secondary active transport

A

Potential energy - more accessible than ATP and more sodium ions to do work than ATP so mobile

43
Q

What happens as ions move down their gradient in secondary active transport

A

Use KE to drive conformational change in transporter protein (or can use specific trasnport proteins)

44
Q

All cell have an

A

Electrical field across their membrane

45
Q

Where do ions sit on an electrical field at rest

A

Negative inside
Positive outside - separated by a boundary
So large electrochemical gradient - source of PE

46
Q

How do electrical fields allow specific ions through voltage sensitive channels

A

When ions move the electrical field moves within them, attached to current carrier, Na+, detected by voltage sensitive proteins, changes in electrical field causes voltage gated channels to depolarise and undergo conformational change which opens, allow specific ions through so current to flow

47
Q

Electrical field change can bring about change in

A

Confirmation change in channels that are sensitive to it

48
Q

How does ECG work

A

ECG reflects very large current and field changes
The shape of the ECG reflects ion movement and cardiac function
MEASURES FLOW

49
Q

Elastic energy is released as

A

Mechanic energy when it springs back to lower ernegry confirmation, underpins storage in proteins

50
Q

With phosphorylation of the protein what happens to PE and elastic energy

A

Both higher

51
Q

Stages of potential energy -> kinetic energy

A

Phosphorylation - higher elastic energy
Elastic -> conformational change
Elastic -> released as mechanical energy (makes KE)-> release Na+

Uptake of K+ - loss of phosphate bond - mechanical energy return to lower energy state (uses KE)

Thus, a cycle and flow maintained

52
Q

Elastic energy to mechanical energy

A

Muscle contraction - energy converted to mechanical energy

  1. ATP binds to myosin and out in high energy state in cocked position
  2. Myosin binds to exposed actin site losing ADP and P
  3. Myosin heads move and perform power stroke back to lower energy confirmation = mechanical energy

Synchronised so regulated flow of released elastic energy/PE which is then converted to ME

53
Q

What is another example of PE-> KE or elastic -> mechanical

A

Release fo elastic energy stored in kinesin

54
Q

What does signalling mean

A

Carry precise meaning within the system

Modulated by other signalling molecules and voltages

55
Q

What is the classification of signalling molecules

A

Endogenous - within the body, eg: adrenaline, thyroid - neurotransmitters
Exogenous 1 - natural - plant based like morphine
Exogenous 11 - synthetic - man made

56
Q

What is clinical pharmacology based on

A

Understanding of endogenous signalling molecules and their cellular targets

57
Q

What are the main extracellular signalling groups

A

Endocrine
Paracrine
Autocrine

58
Q

What are the purpose of extra cellular signalling molecules

A

Communication

Working in synchrony with a common purpose for the whole body

59
Q

What is the endocrine system

A

A set of glands that produce hormones that act as signalling molecules into the blood - highly potent
Act over long distances
Cells need to express receptors for these hormones

60
Q

What is the function of the neuroendocrine system

A 
Regulation:
Digestion 
Metabolism/respiration
Growth
Behaviours
61
Q

What happens in disease to our endocrine system

A

The synthesis, release and degradation are no longer controlled and feedback mechanisms fails

62
Q

What are the properties of amine hormones

A

Amino acid derivative
Small charged hydrophilic
Receptors in plasma membrane

63
Q

What are the properties of peptides and proteins hormones

A

Hydrophilic
Short chain to many
Receptors in plasma membrane

64
Q

What are the properties of steroid hormones

A

Common derivatives from cholesterol

Receptors are intracellular as lipid soluble (lipophilic)

65
Q

Which type of hormone has the fastest plasma half life and time course of action

A

Catecholamines - seconds
Peptides and proteins - minutes
Steroids - hours

66
Q

What are the mechanisms of catecholamines

A

Cause change in membrane potential

Trigger synthesis of second messengers

67
Q

What are the mechanisms of peptides and proteins

A

Trigger synthesis of second messengers

Trigger protein kinase activity - change in DNA

68
Q

What are the mechanisms of steroids

A

Receptor-hormones complex controls transcription and stability of mRNA

69
Q

What are paracrine signalling molecules

A

Signalling from cell to cell
Released into extracellular environment and induce changes in receptor cell
Causes changes in behaviour or differentiation

70
Q

What is an example of a paracrine signalling molecule

A

Neurotransmitter

71
Q

How do neurotransmitters work as signalling molecules

A

Over a synapse
One way transmission of signal
There is an electrochemical signal which is proportional to the presynapric electrical field

72
Q

What are the different types of neurotransmitter signalling molecules

A

Monamines, amino acids, acetylcholine

73
Q

What are the primary signalling roles of neurotransmitters

A

Excitation - signal increase post synapticalky
Inhibitory - signal decrease post synapticalky
Neurones can summate to maintain fine control

74
Q

What is the signalling function of acetylcholine

A

Excitably at the end of the organ

75
Q

What are the types of neurotransmitter under the group monoamines

A

Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Dopamine
Serotonin

76
Q

What is the signalling function of adrenaline

A

Excitatory

77
Q

What is the signalling function of noradrenaline

A

Excitatory

78
Q

What is the signalling function of dopamine

A

Excitatory and inhibitory

79
Q

What is the signalling function of serotonin

A

Excitatory

80
Q

What are the types of neurotransmitter found under the group of amino acids

A

Glutamate
Glycine
GABA

81
Q

What is the signalling function of glutamate

A

Excitatory

82
Q

What is the signalling function of glycine

A

Mainly inhibitory

83
Q

What is the signalling function of GABA

A

Inhibitory

84
Q

What does receptor mean

A

Do not represent the only site for therapeutic drug action
To indicate a particular type of drug target
Has to be activated by a ligand or a signalling molecule

85
Q

What happens when a signalling molecule binds with its target and what can signalling molecules do

A

Endogenous and exogenous signalling molecules - bring about change in functional status of target cells
This can cause another chemical or electrochemical signal to be produced which helps signal processing, perform a signal dependent task - transport or synthesis, direct interconversion between PE and KE

86
Q

What is specific to endogenous signalling molecules binding to their target

A

Bind to receptors
Carry and transfer signal
Most are agonists - put receptor into an active state

87
Q

What is specific to exogenous signalling molecules binding to their target

A

To carry imposter signal
Fit is less optimal
Act as antagonists - blocks or attenuated signal - important in therapeutics
Side effects are possible
Can be manufactured from endogenous molecules

88
Q

What are the targets of signalling molecules in therapeutics (drug targets)

A

Receptors - different, ligand gated
Ion channels - voltage gated
Transporters
Enzymes

Gated channels governed by allosteric modulation
Exception - chemotherapy drug where target is a protein or DNA

89
Q

What are the four drug target classes of receptors

A

Kinase linked receptors
Ion channels (ligand gated)
Nuclear/intracellular
G-protein coupled receptors

90
Q

All receptors need a

A

Ligand or signalling molecule that activated them

91
Q

How do ligand gated ion channels work

A

When bound with ligand - current - channel open and ions enter via facilitated diffusion - hyper polarisation or depolarisation - cellular effects
Milliseconds
Eg: nicotine can, ACh receptors

92
Q

How do kinase linked receptors work

A

Mediate signals from a wide range of protein molecules such as hormones
Act via phosphorylation - signalling cascade - gene transcription - protein synthesis - cellular effects
Hours
Eg: cytokine receptors or hormones

93
Q

How do nuclear receptors work

A

Lipid soluble steroid hormones bind to ligand receptor complex - enter nucleus and act as gene transcription factor - protein synthesis - cellular effects
Hours
Eg: oestrogen receptors

94
Q

How do G protein coupled receptors work

A

3 types - GS, GI and GQ - activate different intercellular routes

Bring about changes in metabolism
Seconds
Eg: muscarinic receptors for acetylcholine

95
Q

What are the targets of signalling molecules in voltage gated ion channels

A 
Selective flow of ion currents down its electrochemical gradient
Na
K
Ca
Cl
96
Q

How are voltage gated ion channels regulated

A

Modulated by phosphorylation - bring about change in conformation
The therapeutic effect occurs when binding using exogenous channel blockers
Eg: Na+/Ca+ channel blockers for epilepsy chronic pain, migraine
Opposite:
GABA Cl- channel agonists for epilepsy

97
Q

What do transporter/carrier proteins do

A

Transport of ions/small molecules by facilitated diffusion
Active transport if needed when going against gradient, use ATP for energy or to establish gradient
Eg: many across GI tract, renal tubules
Serotonin when inhibited - treat mood disorders by targeting transporters

98
Q

What do enzymes do

A

Signal processing
Transformation
Synthesis
Degradation

99
Q

How do you target enzymes

A

Competitive inhibition - bind to active site, eg: aspirin reduces prostaglandin synthesis
ACE inhibitor - reduce levels of angiotensin - decrease BP

100
Q

King Richard is the

A

RITE - four major groups

KLING - subdivision of receptors (to power) - L is ligand gated

Introduction To Cell Physiology And Pharmacology (36 decks)

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