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PS1002 > Sensory Systems - glossary terms > Flashcards

Sensory Systems - glossary terms Flashcards

1
Q

action

A

motor activities such as moving the head or eyes, and locomoting through the environment
action is one of the major outcomes of the perceptual process

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2
Q

action potential

A

rapid increase in positive charge in nerve fibre (axon) that travels down the fibre. also called nerve impulse or spike

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3
Q

afferent neurones

A

neurons that carry action potentials from receptors in the sensory organs towards the central nervous system

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4
Q

auditory perception

A

the sense of hearing, one of the five traditional senses

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5
Q

bottom-up processing

A

processing that is based on stimulation of the receptors. also called data-based processing. opposite of top-down

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6
Q

central nervous system

A

the brain and the spinal chord

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7
Q

efferent neurones

A

neurones that carry action potential away from the central nervous system to effectros such as muscles

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8
Q

environmental stimulus

A

the stimulus “out there” in the external environment

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9
Q

dualism

A

a major philosophical approach stating that the mind has an existence separate from the material world of the body. dualists argue that mind and brain are two separate phenomena

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10
Q

gustatory perception

A

the sense of tasting, one of the five traditional sense

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11
Q

homunculus

A

a map-like representation of regions of the body in the brain

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12
Q

materialism

A

a major philosophical approach stating that the only that exists is matter, and that all things, including the mind and consciousness, are the result of interaction between bits of matter. materialists argue that mind and brain are both physical mediums

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13
Q

neuron

A

one of two cell types in the nervous system (along with glial cells), neurons are responsible for processing sensory, motor, cognitive and affective information

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14
Q

olfactory perception

A

the sense of smelling, one of the five traditional sense

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15
Q

perception

A

the organization identification and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent, understand and interact with the environment

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16
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

the part of the nervous system apart from the brain and the spinal chord

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17
Q

primary receiving areas

A

areas of the cerebral cortex that are first to receive most of the signals initiated by a senses receptors

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18
Q

give an example of a primary receiving area

A

the occipital cortex is the site of the primary receiving area for vision, and the temporal lobe is the site of the primary receiving area for hearing

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19
Q

receptive field

A

a neuron’s receptive field is the area on the receptor surface that when stimulated affects the firing of the neuron

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20
Q

receptor

A

a sensory receptor is a cell sensitive to environmental energy
receptors change this energy into electrical signals in the nervous system

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21
Q

recognition

A

the ability to place an object in a category that gives it meaning
eg recognizing a particular red object as a tomato or giving a physical sound a semantic meaning

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22
Q

sensory organs

A

specialized organs that interact with environmental stimuli and that contain receptors that transduce a specific type of stimulus energy into nerve activity

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23
Q

sensory systems

A

the parts of the nervous system which are responsible for processing sensory information

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24
Q

tactile perception

A

the sense of touching

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25
Q

top-down processing

A

processing that starts with the analysis of high-level information such as knowledge a person brings to a situation. also called knowledge based processing
distinguish from bottom-up or data-processing which is based on incoming data

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26
Q

topographic maps

A

the ordered projection of a sensory surface or an effector system to one ot more structures of the central nervous sytem. topographic maps can be found in many motor systems

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27
Q

transducer

A

a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of energy

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28
Q

transduction

A

in the sense, the conversion of environmental energy into electrical energy eg receptors in the eye transduce light energy into electrical energy

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29
Q

visual perception

A

the sense of seeing, one of the five traditional sense

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30
Q

anterior

A

toward the front end

opposite - posterior

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31
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

the part of the PNS that influences the function of internal organs. the ANS acts largely unconsciously and regulates the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination and sexual arousal

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32
Q

brainstem

A

the posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal chord. in humans, it is usually described as including the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain

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33
Q

brodmann area

A

a region of the berevral cortex that is defined by its cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells

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34
Q

cerebellum

A

a large, highly convoluted (in-folded) structure located dorsal to the brainstem at the level of the pons, also know as little cerebrum

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35
Q

cerebral cortes

A

the layered sheet of neurons that covers the surface of the brain and contains the machinery for creating perception, as wekk as other funcitons, such as language, memory and thinking. it is divided in tow (lateral) hemispheres each containing four major lobes

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36
Q

contralateral

A

on the opposite side of the body

opposite - ipsilateral

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37
Q

coronal plane

A

a plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front

also called frontal plane

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38
Q

distal

A

located more distant from the point of origin or attatchment

opposite - proximal

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39
Q

dorsal

A

toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. the top of the brain is considered dprsal because it has this position in four-legged animals
opposite of ventral

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40
Q

frontal lobe

A

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex

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41
Q

gray matter

A

a major component of the central nervous system that contains primarily neuronal cell bodies

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42
Q

inferior

A

below another part

opposite - superior

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43
Q

ipsilateral

A

on the same side

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44
Q

later

A

toward the side, away from the midline

opposite - medial

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45
Q

medial

A

toward the midline, away from the side\

opposite - lateral

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46
Q

occipital lobe

A

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, which holds amongst others the primary visual cortex

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47
Q

parietal lobe

A

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex, which holds amongst others the primary somasensory cortex

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48
Q

posterior

A

toward the rear end

opposite - anterior

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49
Q

proximal

A

located close to the point of origin or attatchment

opposite - distal

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50
Q

sagittal plane

A

a plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side

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51
Q

somatic nervous system

A

the part of the PNS that is associated with body movement through the control of skeletal (voluntary) muscles and with the reception of external stimuli

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52
Q

superior

A

above another part

opposite - inferior

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53
Q

temporal lobe

A

one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex which holds amongst others the primary auditory cortex

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54
Q

thalamus

A

a plane that shows brain structures as seen from above

also called the horizontal plane

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55
Q

ventral

A

toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side

opposite of dorsal

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56
Q

white matter

A

a major component of the central nervous system that contains million myelinated axons (ie the wires between neuronal cell bodies)

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57
Q

action potential

A

rapid increase in positive charge in a nerve fibre (axon) that travels down the fibre. action potentials are all-or-nothing events (compared to graded potential)
also called nerve impulse or spike

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58
Q

axon

A

a long projection of a neuron that typically conducts action potentials away from the neuron’s cell body. also known as nerve fibre

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59
Q

cell

A

the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living organisms

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60
Q

cell body

A

the core region of a cell containing the nucleus and other cell organelles

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61
Q

dendrite

A

branching extensions of the neurons plasma membrane that increase the surface area of the neuron and collect neuronal activity from other cells

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62
Q

equilibrium potential

A

the membrane potential at which a particular type of ion has no driving force to diffuse through the plasma membrane in either direction. at the equilibrium potential, chemical and electrical gradients are equal in magnitude

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63
Q

glia cells

A

non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support and protection for neurons. among many functions, glia cells are responsible for the myelination of axons

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64
Q

graded potential

A

a relatively small charge in membrane potential, for example by opening ligand-gated ion channels. the strength of a graded potential is given relative to the strength of stimulation (compare action potential)

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65
Q

ligand-gated channels

A

a group of ion channels, which open to allow ions such as Na, K, Ca and Cl to pass through the membrane in response to the binding of a messenger

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66
Q

membrane potential

A

the difference in electric potential between the interior and the exterior of a biological cell

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67
Q

myelin

A

a fatty substance te surrounds the axon of many neurons. myelin increases the membrane resitance helping to speed the conductance of action potentials

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68
Q

neuron doctrine

A

the concept proposing that the neuron is the fundamental unit of the nervous system. compare reticular theory

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69
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical messenger released by neurons onto a target cell with an excitatory or inhibitory effect

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70
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

a type of glia cells in the central nervous system. oligodendrocytes cells wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath - equivalent to Schwann cells

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71
Q

nucleus of a cell

A

a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contain most of thecells genetic material

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72
Q

plasma membrane

A

a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. the plasma membrane is selsctively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substnces in and out of the cell

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73
Q

postsynaptic

A

referring to the neuron (or parts thereof) after the synapse with respect to the flow of information
compare to presynaotic

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74
Q

postsynaptic potential

A

changes int he membrane potential of the post synaptic neuron of a synapse, postsynaptic potentials are graded potentials that are either excitatory or inhibitory

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75
Q

potassium

A

the ion of the potassium atom. one of the main players contributing to the membrane potential of neurons

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76
Q

presynaptic

A

referring to the neuron (or parts thereof) before the synapse with respect to the flow of information
compare postsynaptic

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77
Q

resting potential

A

the membrane potential in the absence of stimulation. the resting potential of neurons is typically around -70mV. it depends on the equilibrium potentials of contributing ions and the selective membrane permeability for these ions

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78
Q

reticular theory

A

an obsolete scientific theory in neurobiology that stated that the nervous system is made up of a single interlinking network.
compare neuron doctrine

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79
Q

schwann cells

A

the principle glia of the peripheral nervous system. schwann cells wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath

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80
Q

sodium

A

the ion. one of the main players contributing to the membrane potential of neurons

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81
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

an energy consuming enzyme that pumps sodium out of cells, while pumping potassium into cells. it is essential for maintaining the resting potential and therefore normal brain funciton

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82
Q

synapse

A

the junction between aneuron and another cell that forms the information transfer site between the two cells

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83
Q

vesicles

A

small membrane compartments that ctore and release neurotransmitters at the synapse

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84
Q

voltage-gated channel

A

gated membrane channels that open and close only at specific membrane potentials. voltage-gated channels are essential for the generation of action potentials

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85
Q

active touch

A

touch in which the observer plays an active role in touching and exploring an object usually with his or her hnds

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86
Q

cortical magnification

A

the exaggerated cortical representation of one part of a sensory dimension or surface compared to another

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87
Q

cutaneous senses

A

the ability to perceive sensations such as touch temperature and pain that are based on stimulation of receptors in the skin

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88
Q

dermis

A

the layer below the epidermis

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89
Q

epidermis

A

the outer layer of skin including a layer of dead skin cells

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90
Q

kinesthesis

A

the perception of body movements. it involves being able to detect changes in body position and movements based on proprioception and the vestibular system

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91
Q

mechanoreceptor

A

receptor that responds to mechanical stimulation such as pressure stretching or vibration

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92
Q

Meissner corpuscle (RA1)

A

a rapidly adapting mechanoreceptor in the skin. it has been proposed that the Meissner corpuscle is important for perceiving tactile slip and for controlling the force needed to grip objects

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93
Q

Merkel receptor (SA1)

A

a disk-shaed mechanoreceptor in the skin associated with slowly adapting fibres and the perception of fine details

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94
Q

nociceptor

A

a fibre that responds to stimuli that are damaging to the skin

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95
Q

pacinian corpuscle (RA2)

A

a mechanoreceptor in the skin with a distinctive elliptical shape. it transmits pressure to the nerve fibres inside it only at the beginning and end of a pressure stimulu, and is responsible for our persepction of vibration and the fine textures that are perceived when moving the fingers over a surface

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96
Q

passive touch

A

a situation in which a personal passively receives tactile stimulation

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97
Q

phantom limb

A

a persons continued perception (often including pain) of a limb such as an arm of a leg, even though the limb has been amputated

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98
Q

proprioception

A

the sensing of the position and movement of the limbs

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99
Q

rate code

A

a neuronal coding principle in which the firing rate of a neuron carries information about the stimulus. it is often associated with neural coding of magnitude (intensity of pressure, stretch, light intensity or loudness)

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100
Q

rapidly adapting receptor (RA)

A

mechanoreceptors that respond with bursts of firing just at the onset and offset of a pressure stimulus
the Meissner corpuscle and the pacinian corpuscle are rapidly adapting receptor

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101
Q

ruffini cylinder (SA2)

A

a mechanoreceptor structure in the skin associated with slowly adapting fibres. it has been proposed that the ruffini cylinder is involved in perceiving stretching

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102
Q

slowly adapting (SA) receptors

A

mechanoreceptors located in the epidermis and the dermis that repond with prolonged firing to continued pressure. the merkel receptor and ruffini cylinder are slowly adapting mechanoreceptors

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103
Q

somatosensory system

A

the system that includes the cutaneous senses (senses involving the skin) and proprioception (the sense of the position and the movement of the limbs

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104
Q

two-point threshold

A

the smallest separation between two points on the skin that is perceived as two points; a measure of acuity on the skin

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105
Q

amygdala

A

a subcortical structure that is involved in emotional responding and in processing olfactory signals

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106
Q

chemotopic map

A

the pattern of activation in the olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a map of activation based on these properties. for example there is evidence that chemicals are mapped in the olfactory bulb based on carbon chain length. also called odour maps

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107
Q

flavour

A

the perception that occurs from the combination of taste and olfaction

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108
Q

glomeruli

A

small structure in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons
one function of each glomerulus is to collect information about a small group of odorants

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109
Q

mitral cell

A

a neuron in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons and relays them to the brain
there are about 50,000 mitral cells in the human olfactory bulb

110
Q

odorant

A

a molecule that is defined by its physiochemical characteristics, which are capable of being translated by the nervous system into the perception of smell

111
Q

olfactory bulb

A

the structure that receives signals directly from the olfactory receptors. the olfactory bulb contains glomeruli which receives these signals from the receptors

112
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

the region inside the nose that contains the receptors for the sense of smell

113
Q

olfactory receptor

A

a protein string that responds to odor stimuli. different olfactory receptor neurons are equipped with different olfactory receptors

114
Q

oral capture

A

the condition in which sensation from both olfaction and taste are perceived being located in the mouth

115
Q

papillae

A

ridges and valleys on the tongue some of which contain taste buds
there are three types of papillae: fungiform, foliate and cirumvallate

116
Q

population coding

A

a general principle of sensory processing according to which different values of perceptual attribute are coded by different patterns of activity in a whole population of neurons

117
Q

recognition profile

A

the pattern of olfactory activation for an odorant indicating which ORNNs (olfactory receptor neurons) are activated by the odorant

118
Q

retronasal rout

A

the opening of the oral cavity through the nasal pharynx into the nasal cavity. this route is the basis for the way smell combines with taste to create flavour

119
Q

tastant

A

any stimulus that can be tasted

120
Q

taste bud

A

a structure located within papillae on the tongue that contains the taste cells

121
Q

taste cells

A

cells located in taste buds that cause the transduction of chemical or electrical energy when chemicals contact receptor sites or channels located at the tip of this cell

122
Q

taste pore

A

an opening in the taste bud through which the tips of taste cells protrude. when chemicals enter a taste pore, they stimulate the taste cells and result in transduction

123
Q

acoustic signal

A

the pattern of frequencies and intensities of the sound stimulus

124
Q

amplitude

A

in the case of a repeating sound wave of a pure tone, amplitude represents the pressure difference between atmospheric pressure and the maximum pressure of the wave

125
Q

auditory canal

A

the canal through which air vibrations travel from the environment to the tympanic membrane

126
Q

auditory response area

A

the psychophysically measured area that defines the combinations of frequencies and sound pressure levels over which hearing functions

127
Q

compex tone

A

a tone consists of two or more pure tones. the first harmonic of a complex tone is the pure tone with the lowest frequency in the frequency spectrum. the other components called higher harmonics have frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency

128
Q

decibel (dB)

A

a unit that indicates the pressure of a sound stimulus relative to a reference pressure: dB=20 log(p/p0) where p is the pressure of the tone and p0 is the reference pressure

129
Q

frequency

A

the number of times per second that pressure changes of a sound stimulus repeat. frequency is measured in Hertz where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

130
Q

frequency spectrum

A

a plot that indicates the relative energy (or amplitudes) of the various frequencies that make up an acoustic signal

131
Q

harmonics

A

pure-tone components of a complex tone that have frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency

132
Q

hertz

A

the unit for designating the frequency of a tone. one Hertz equals one cycle per second

133
Q

incus

A

the second of the three ossicles of the middle ear. it transmits vibrations from the malleus to the stapes

134
Q

inner ear

A

the innermost division of the ear, containing the cochlea and the receptors for hearing

135
Q

loudness

A

the perceived quality of sound that ranges from soft to loud. for a tone of a particular frequency, loudness usually increases with increasing decibels

136
Q

malleus

A

the first for the ossicles of the middle ear. receives vubrations from the tympanic membrane and transmits these vibrations to the incus

137
Q

middle ear

A

the small air-filled space between the auditory canal and the cochlea that contains the ossicles

138
Q

middle ear muscles

A

muscles attached to the ossicles in the middle ear. the smallest skeletal muscle in the body they contract in reponseto very intense sounds and dampen the vibration of the ossicles

139
Q

ossicles

A

three small bones in the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the outer to the inner ear

140
Q

outer ear

A

the pinna and the auditory canal

141
Q

oval window

A

a membrane covered hole in the cochlea that receives vibrations from the stapes

142
Q

periodic tone

A

a tone which the waveform repeats

143
Q

pinna

A

the part of the ear that is visible on the outside of the head

144
Q

pitch

A

the perceived quality of sound anging from low to high that is most closely associated with the frequency of a tone

145
Q

pure tone

A

a tone with pressure changes that can be described as a single sine wave

146
Q

sound (percpetual)

A

the perceptual experience of hearing

147
Q

sound (physical)

A

the physical stimulus for hearin

148
Q

sound pressure level (SPL)

A

a designation used to indicate that the reference pressure used for calculating a tones decibel rating is set at 20 micropascals, near the threshold in the most sensitive frequency range for hearing

149
Q

sound spectogram

A

a plot showing the pattern of intensities and frequencies of a sound stimulus

150
Q

sound wave

A

pattern of pressure changes in a medium. most of the sounds we hear are due to pressure change in the air altough sound can be transmitted through water and solids as well

151
Q

stapes

A

the last of the three ossicle in the middle ear. it recieves vibrations from the incus and transmits these vibration to the oval window of the inner ear

152
Q

timbre

A

the perceived quality that distinguishes bwteen two tones that sound different even though they have the same loudness, pitch and duration. differences in timbre are illustrated by the sounds made by different musical instruments

153
Q

tympanic membrane

A

a membrane at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to vibration of the air and then transmits these vibrations to the ossicles in the middle ear. also called eardrum

154
Q

acoustic prism

A

the way the cochlea separated frequencies entering the ear to create activity at different places along the basilar membrane

155
Q

apex of cochlea

A

the end of the cochlea farthest from the middle ear

156
Q

auditory space

A

perception of where sounds are located in space. auditory space extends around a listeners head in all directions existing wherever there is sound

157
Q

azimuth

A

in hearing, specifies locations that vary from left to right relative to the listener

158
Q

base of the cochlea

A

the part of the cochlea nearest the middle ear

159
Q

basiliar membrane

A

a membrane that stretched the length of the cochlea and controls the vibration of the cochlear partition. physical properties of the baisilar membrane play a critical role for the frequency tuning

160
Q

binaural cue

A

sound localization cue that involves both ears. interaural difference and interaural level difference are the primary binaural cues

161
Q

characteristic frequency

A

the frequency at which a neuron in the auditory system has its lowest threshold

162
Q

cilia

A

fine hairs the protrude from the inner and outer hair cells of the auditory system. bending the cilia of the inner hair cells leads to transduction

163
Q

cochlea

A

the snail-shaped liquid–filled structure that contains the structures of the inner ear, the most important of which are the basilar membrane, the techtorial membrane and the hair cells

164
Q

cochlear partition

A

a partition in the cochlea, extending almost its full length that separates the scala tympani and the scala vestibule. the organ of corti, which contains the hair cells is part of the cochlear partition

165
Q

distance

A

how far a stimulus is from the observer.in hearing the distance coordinate specifies how far the sound source is from the listener

166
Q

elevation

A

in hearind sound locations that are up and down relative to the listener

167
Q

frequency tuning curve

A

curve relating frequency and the threshold intensity for activating an auditory neuron

168
Q

hair cell

A

neuron in the cochlea that contains small hairs or cilis that are displaced by vibration of the basiliar membrane and fluids inside the inner ear. there are two kinds of hair cells: inner and outer

169
Q

inner hair cell

A

auditory receptor cell in the inner ear that us primarily responsible for auditory transduction

170
Q

interaural level difference (ILD)

A

the difference in the sound pressure or level between the left and right ears. this difference creates an acoustic shadow for the far ear. the ILD provides a cue for sound-localization for high frequency sounds

171
Q

interaural sound difference (ITD)

A

when a sound is positioned closer to one ear than to the other, the sound reaches the close ear slightly before reaching the far ear., so tere is a difference in the time arrival at the two ears. the ITS provides a cue for sounds localization for low frequency sounds

172
Q

outer hair cell

A

auditory receptor cells in the inner ear that amplify the responses of the inner hair cells by amplifying the vibration of the basilar membrane

173
Q

organ of corti

A

the major structure of the cochlea partition, containing the basilar membrane the techtorial membrane and the receptors for hearing

174
Q

place theory of hearing

A

the proposal that the frequency of a sound is indicated by the place along the organ of corti at which a nerve is firing is highest

175
Q

Techtorial membrane

A

a membrane that stretches the length of the cochlea and is located directly over the hair cells. vibrations of the cochlea partition case the tectorial membrane to bend hair cells by rubbing against them

176
Q

tonotopic map

A

an ordered map of frequencies created by the responding of neurons within structures of the auditory system. there is tonotopic map of neuron along the length of the cochlea, with neurons in the apex reponding best to low frequencies and neurons at the base responding beast to high frequencies

177
Q

travelling wave

A

in the auditory system, vibrations of the basilar membrane in which the peak of vibrations travels from the base of the membrane to its apex

178
Q

otolith organ

A

either of two mechanical structures (utricle and saccule) in the vestibular organs that sense both linear acceleration and gravity

179
Q

semicircular canals

A

any of the three toroidal tubes in the vesibular organs that sense angular motion

180
Q

vestibular organs

A

the set of five organs - three semicircular cancal and two otolith organs - located in each inner ear that sense head motion and head orientation with respect to gravity

181
Q

vestibular system

A

the mechanism in the inner ear that is responsible for balance and sensing the position of the body

182
Q

accommodation (focus)

A

in vision, bringing objects located at different distance into focus by changing the shape of the lens

183
Q

blind spot

A

the small area where the potic nerve leaves the back of the eye. there are no visual receptors in this area, so small images falling directly on the blind spot cannot be seen

184
Q

cones

A

cone-shaped photoreceptors in the retina that are primarily responsible for vision in high levels of illumination and for colour vision and detailed vision

185
Q

cornea

A

the transparent focusing element of the eye that is the first structure through which light passes as it enters the eye. the cornea is the eyes major focusing element

186
Q

eccentricity

A

the distance between a position on the retina and the center of fovea

187
Q

electromagnetic spectrum

A

continuum of electromagnetic energy that extends from very-short-wavelength gamma rats to long-wavelength radio waves. visible light is a narrow band within this spectrum

188
Q

emmetropia

A

the condition in which there in no refractive error because the refractive power of the eye is perfectly matched to the length of the eyeball

189
Q

eye

A

the eyeball and its contents which include focusing elements, the retina and supporting structures

190
Q

eyelid

A

a thin fold of skin that covers and protects the eye

191
Q

fovea

A

a small area in the human retina that contains only cone receptros. the fovea is located on the line of sight, so that when a person looks at an object, the center of its image falls on the fovea

192
Q

hyperopia

A

a condition causing poor vision in which people can see objects that are far away but do not see near objects clearly. also called far sightedness

193
Q

iris

A

the coloured part of the eye, consisting of a muscular diaphragm surrounding the pupil and regulating the light entering the eye by changing the pupil size

194
Q

illuminance

A

a photometric measure of the light incident on a surface (per unit area)

195
Q

lens

A

the transparent focusing element of the eye through which light passes after passing through the cornea and the aqueous humor. the lens’s change in shape to focus at different distances is called accommodation

196
Q

luminance

A

a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction

197
Q

myopia

A

an inability to see distant objects clearly. also called nearsightedness

198
Q

optic nerve

A

bundle of nerve fibres that carry impulses from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus and other structure. each optic nerve contains about one million ganglian cell fibres

199
Q

peripheral retina

A

the area of the retina outside the fovea

200
Q

photon

A

a quantum of visible light (or other forms of electromagnetic radiation) exhibiting wave-particle duality (ie demonstrating properties of both waves and articles)

201
Q

photopic vision

A

vision under well lit conditions (intensities are bright enough to stimulate cone receptors and bright enough to saturate the rod

202
Q

photoreceptor

A

a light sensitive receptor in the retina of the eye

203
Q

presbyopia

A

the inability of the eye to accommodate due to a hardening of the lens and a weakening of the cilary muscles. it occurs as people get older

204
Q

pupil

A

the opening through which light reflected from objects in the environment enters the eye

205
Q

reflectance

A

the percentage of light reflected from an object as a function of wavelength

206
Q

retina

A

a complex network of cells that covers the inside back of the eye. these cell include the receptors, which generate eectical signal in resonse to light, as well as horizontal;, bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cells

207
Q

rod

A

a cylinder shaped photoreceptor in the retina that is responsible for vision at low levels of illumination

208
Q

scotopic vision

A

vision under low light conditions (light intensities that are bright enough to stimulate the rod receptors but not too dim to stimulate the cone receptors)

209
Q

selective reflection

A

when an object reflects some wavelength of the spectrum more than others. selective reflection is associated with the perception of chromatic colour

210
Q

visible light

A

the band of electromagnetic energy that activated the visual system and that can be perceived. for humans 400-700 nm

211
Q

visual angle

A

the angle of an object relative to an observers eyes. this angle can be determined by extending two lines from the eye - on to one end of an object and other to the other end of the object. because of an observers visual angle is always determine relative to an observer, its visual angle changes as the distance between the object and the observer changes

212
Q

wavelength

A

for light energy the distance between one peak of light and the next peak

213
Q

absorption spectrum

A

a plot of the amount of light absorbed by a visual pigment versus the wavelength of light

214
Q

amacrine cell

A

a neuron that transmits signals laterally in the retina. amacrine cells synapse with bipolar cells and the ganglion cells

215
Q

bipolar cell

A

a retinal neuron that receives inputs from the visual receptors and sends signals to the retinal ganglion cells

216
Q

center-surround organization

A

arrangement of a neurons receptive field in which one area is surrounded by another area. stimulation of the center and surround causes the opposite responses

217
Q

ganglion cell

A

a neuron in the retina that receives inputs from bipolar an amacrine cells. the axon of the ganglion cells are the nerve fibres that travel out of the eye in the optic nerve

218
Q

horizontal cell

A

a neuron that transmits signals laterally across the retina. horizontal cell synapse with receptors and bipolar cells

219
Q

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

A

a structure in the thalamus tat receives input from the retinal ganglion cells and has input and output connections to the visual cortex

220
Q

lateral inhibition

A

inhibition that is transmitted laterally across a nerve circuit. in the retina, lateral inhibition is transmitted by the horizontal and amacrine cells

221
Q

M cells

A

ganglion cells with large centre-surpund receptive fields that are rather indifferent tot he wavelength of light and adapt rapidly

222
Q

optic chiasma

A

the part of the brain where the optic nerves partially cross. the optic chiasm is located at immediately below the hypothalamus

223
Q

optic nerve

A

a paired nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the LGN and superior colliculus

224
Q

outer segment

A

the part of the rod and cone visual receptors that contains light-sensitive visual pigment molecules (the retinal bound top membrane proteins)

225
Q

P cells

A

ganglion cells with small center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to the wavelength pf light and adapt slowly

226
Q

phototransduction

A

the process by which light energy is transduced into electrical energy in the rod and cone cells in the retina of the eye

227
Q

retinal

A

a molecule bound to membrane proteins in photoreceptors that can absorp photons. it is hence the chemical basis of animal vision

228
Q

retinotopic map

A

a map on a structure in the visual system, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus or the primary visual cortex that exhibits a spatial correspondence to the retina. in retinotopic maps, locations adjacent to each other correspond to locations adjacent to each other on the retina

229
Q

spontaneous activity

A

neural activity in the absence of an explicit task, such as sensory input or motor output. it is also referred to as resting-state activity

230
Q

striate cortex

A

the primary visual cortex, also called V1 or brodmann area 17

231
Q

superior colliculus

A

an area in the brain that is involved in controlling eye movements and other visual behaviours. this area receives about 1o percent of the retinal ganglion cell fibres that leave the eye in the optic nerve

232
Q

additive colour mixing

A

a colour system that starts with dark (typically black) and that creates a wider range of colours by adding light. dditive colour mixing is used by your computer monitor

233
Q

colour blindness

A

a condition in which a person perceives no chromatic colour. this can be caused by absent or malfunctioning cone receptors or by cortical damage

234
Q

colour deficiency

A

people with this condition (sometimes incorrectly called blindness) see fewer colours than people with normal colour vision

235
Q

deuteranopia

A

a form of red-green colour dichromatism caused by lack of the middle wavelength cone pigment

236
Q

dichromat

A

a person who has a form of colour deficiency due to the absence of one cone receptor type

237
Q

monochromat

A

a person who is completely colour-blind and therefore sees everything as black, white or shades of grey. monochromats generally have only one type of functioning receptros, usually rods

238
Q

monochromatic light

A

light that contains only a single wavelength

239
Q

munsell colour system

A

a colour space that specifies colours based on three colour dimensions: hue, value (lightness) and chroma (colour purity)

240
Q

opponent theory

A

a theory of colour vision that is based on the premise that there are three opponent channels (black-white, red-green and blue-yellow) subserving colour vision

241
Q

protanopia

A

a form of re-green dichromatism caused by a lack of the long wavelength cone pigment

242
Q

subtractive colour mixing

A

a colour system that starts with light (typically white) and that creates a wider range of colours y adding pigments (by subtracting specific wavelengths from the white light spectrum). subtractive colour mixing occurs when you are mixing paint

243
Q

trichromat

A

a person with normal colour vision

244
Q

trichromatic theory

A

a theory of colour vision that is based on the premise that there are three classes of receptors (L,M and S cones) subserving colour vision

245
Q

trianopia

A

a form of dichromatism thought to be cause by a lack of short-wavelength cone pigment

246
Q

bimodal neuron

A

a neuron that responds to stimuli associated with more than one sense

247
Q

binding

A

the process by which features within one modality (colour, form, motion and location in vision eg) are combined to create the percept of a coherent object. binding can also occur across sense, as when touch and vision are associated with the same object

248
Q

binding problem

A

the problem of how neuronalactivity in many separated areas in the brain is combined to create a perception of a coherent object

249
Q

concurrent

A

the subjective experience in synesthesia triggered by an inducer stimulus

250
Q

easy problem of consciousness

A

the problem determining the relationship between physiological processes like nerve firing and perceptual experience. note that this involves determining a relationship, not a cause

251
Q

grandmother cell

A

a hypothesised type of neuron that responds only to a very specific stimulus, such as a persons grandmother

252
Q

hard problem of consciousness

A

the problem determining how physiological processes, such as ion flow across nerve membranes, cause different perceptual experiences

253
Q

inducer

A

a term to describe the stimulus that elicits synesthesia

254
Q

mind-body problem

A

one of the most famous problems in science: how do physical processes such as nerve impulses or soium and potassium molecules flowing acorss membranes become transformed into the richness of perceptual experience

255
Q

multimodal

A

the involvement of a number of different sense in determining perception. for example body perception can be influenced by information from a number of different sensory signals including for example vision and touch

256
Q

neuronal correlates of consciousness (NCC)

A

connections between the firing of neurons and perceptual experience

257
Q

synesthesia

A

a condition in which stimulation of one modality (such as vision) results in an experience in another modality (such as touch). for example a person with mirror-touch synesthesia, who observes another person being touched may experience touch on the same part of his or her own body

258
Q

absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulus necessary for an observer to detect a stimulus

259
Q

bias

A

a measure for the extent to which one response is more probable than another. bias is independent of sensitivity

260
Q

correct rejection

A

in a signal detection experiment, saying no i don’t detect a signal on a trial in which the signal is not presented

261
Q

difference threshold

A

the minimal detectable difference between two stimuli. also called just noticeable difference

262
Q

false alarm

A

in a signal detection experiment saying yes i detect the stimuli on a trial in which the signal is not presented

263
Q

Fechner’s law

A

a principle describing the relationship between a stimulus and the resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity

264
Q

hit

A

in a signal detection experiment saying yes i detect the signal whien the signal is present

265
Q

miss

A

in a signal detection experiment saying no i don’t detect a signal when the signal is present

266
Q

psychophysics

A

traditionally the term refers to quantitative method of measuring the relationship between properties of the stimulus and the subjects experince

267
Q

receiver operating characteristic curve ROC

A

in a signal detection experiment the graphical plt of the hit rate as a function of the false alarm rate. if these are the sam, observers cannot distinguish between signal and noise. as the observers sensitivity increases, the curve bows toward the upper left corner - a point that represents perfect sensitivity

268
Q

response criterion

A

in a signal detection experiment the subjective magnitude of a stimulus above which the participant will indicate that the stimulus is present

269
Q

sensitivity

A

a measure for how hard or easy it is for a subject to detect that a target stimulus i present. it can be computed based on hit and false alarm rates. also called d’ (d prime)

270
Q

signal detection theory

A

a theory stating the detection of a signal depends both on the participants sensitivity to the signal an on the participants response bias

271
Q

webers law

A

a law stating that the ratio of the difference threshold (delta l)to the stimulus intensity (l) is constant. according to the relationship doubling the value of the stimulus intensity will cause a doubling of the difference threshold. the ratio deltal/l is called webers fraction

PS1002 (5 decks)

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