Semester Exam 2022 Flashcards
Cells that supply new cells as an organism grows and also replace cells that get damaged in that area
Adult Stem Cells (ASC)
A 3-5 day old embryo that we get ESC from is called a
blastocyst
The main controversy of the HGP when it began was
the money it would cost and take away from the private sector
Who was the individual that led the original undertaking of the HGP
Francis Collins
T or F - Genetic signals are responsible for turning on to tell ESC what type of cell to become
true
Cells that are completely undifferentiated and can develop into any cell type in the body
embryonic stem cell
All ASC are —- which means that cells can change into some, but not all cell types of the body. They can only make cells in their tissue of origin
multipotent
What was the main goal of the Human Genome Project
(written)
to map out and make the entire human genome (DNA) available to all
When a stem cell divides they have 2 unique properties about them, what are they?
(written)
- one cell stays the same and the other can differentiate
- they can divide again and again and still work the same
There are some limitations to using ASC, list 2
(written)
- they can only become like cells (blood cells -> blood cells)
- not as versatile or durable
- not as numerous and harder to find
list 2 impacts of the HGP has had on the medical community
(written)
- ability to see where diseases occur in the DNA
- ability to test drugs and medicines for research and cures
There are many hopes for stem cell research by the scientific community, list 3 things they are expecting to happen with stem cell therapy
(written)
- ability to create replacement organs and tissue
- understand basic biology of living things
- be able to discover diseases and treat them correctly
What is the HapMap project and why is it important
(written)
this project was between many countries and helped determine how humans evolved through testing their DNA as well as showing similarities between living things
basic unit of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are called
nucleotides
approximately how many genes make up humans
25,000
sequences of DNA that code for the making of proteins are called
genes
structures that contain DNA and proteins that package and manage storage, duplication, and expression of DNA are called
chromosomes
DNA within the entire collection of chromosomes in each cell of any organism is known as a
genome
What was the name of the project that mapped out all genes on our chromosomes, that took over 12 years to complete
Human Genome Project
cells that don’t have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles are
prokaryotic
the study of the genomes of an organism
genomics
give one example of relatedness of all living organisms
we all have eyes
list 2 benefits that genomic sequencing is having on us and will have on us in the future
- we can tell if people are predisposed to certain diseases
- we will know where to turn on and off certain genes if needed and continue research in each gene area
3 examples of model organisms for genetic research
round worms, mice, and fruit flies
3 qualities why those organisms listed above are good models for genetic research
small, short reproductive cycle, many offspring, easy to handle, good genetic variation
what does a punnett square not show
the actual results of a genetic cross
what principle states that during gamete formation genes for different traits separate without influencing each other’s inheritance
principle of independent assortment
offspring that result from crosses between true-breeding parents with different traits
are called bybrids
when mendel crossed true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all of the offspring were tall because
the allele for tall plants is dominant
the principles of probability can be used to
predict the traits of offspring produced by genetic crosses
what is a genetic cross between and individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive
a testcross
if alleles did not segregate during gamete formation
all of mendel’s F2 would have been tall
what was one of the most significant conclusions that mendel drew from his research
traits are inherited in discrete units, one from each parent
gametes have
one allele for each chromosome
black fur in mice (B) is dominant to brown fur (b). Short tails (T) are dominant to long tails (t). What proportion of the offspring of the cross BbTt x BBtt will have black fur and long tails?
8/16
what is the probability that four coins will come up heads when flipped simultaneously
1/16
a segment of DNA that controls a particular trait
gene
the different forms of the same gene are called
alleles
— is the likelihood that a particular event will occur
probability
individuals with 2 identical alleles for a trait are known as
homozygous
a chart showing the gene combinations that are possible from a genetic cross
punnett square
the physical appearance of an organism is known as its
phenotype
a chart that shows the relationships of a gene within a family is a
pedigree
a form of gene that is expressed if it is present
dominant
list the 2 rules of probability
- you only get expected ratios for large numbers of trials
- previous events do not affect future outcomes
Mendel developed 4 principles that still apply to genetics today. List and explain all 4
- Biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from generation to generation
- principle of dominance - when 2 unlike factors responsible for a single character are present (dominant allele is present it will always be seen, recessive only when 2 are present)
- segregation occurs = separation of alleles during gamete formation (each received one copy of a factor)
- Independent Assortment - during gamete formation genes for different traits segregate independently of one another (1 gene does not influence the affect of another gene)
selective breeding produces
desired traits in offspring
continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics
inbreeding
these structures in bacteria recognize certain nucleotide sequences and cut foreign DNA at those sites
restriction enzymes
on an electrophoresis gel, DNA band B is closer to the positive end of the gel than band A. what is true about their size
band B is smaller than band A
naturally occurring pieces of circular DNA found outside the main chromosome in bacteria
plasmid
this type of cloning occurs when a gene or length of DNA molecule is cloned
molecular
the process of DNA fingerprinting is based on the fact that
no 2 people, except identical twins, have exactly the same DNA
gene therapy is successful if the
replacement gene is expressed in the persons cell
the polymerase chain reaction is important because it allows us to
make many copies of small amounts of DNA
It is theoretically possible for a gene from any organism to function in any other organism. why is this possible?
all organisms have the same genetic code
separates molecules by movement due to size and electrical charge
gel electrophoresis
recognize and cut at specific sequences of nucleotides in the DNA molecule
restriction enzymes
produces many copies of a gene for basic research or for a large scale production of a gene product
gene cloning
this technology creates a small piece of guide RNA that binds to a specific target sequence in a cell’s DNA that is recognized by the Cas9 enzyme to cut the DNA at that site
CRISPR
This type of selective breeding will increase genetic variation
hybridization
Humans making changes in the DNA of a living organism is called
genetic engineering
the replacement of absent or faulty genes with normal working genes is known as
gene therapy
production of identical copies of the original, it could be molecular, cellular or on an organism level
cloning
process of a cell taking DNA from an outside source and making it part of its own DNA, is called
transformation
continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics
inbreeding
this type of cloning produces identical cell lines, not entire organisms
cellular
explain the significance of the discovery of restriction enzymes in bacteria to genetic engineering
restriction enzymes are very important for gel electrophoresis. The bacteria that produce them are plentiful which makes it easier to get the enzymes. these enzymes are used to cut DNA to find certain genes and can be used in paternity cases, fingerprinting and so on.
explain how gel electrophoresis works
gel electrophoresis starts in PCR where the DNA is amplified. The amplified DNA is then put in wells on an agarose gel. In the gel the DNA will be cut by a restriction enzyme. DNA is placed towards the negative end of the gel and runs to the positive when an electric current is added. this current separates the DNA according to the restriction enzyme placed on it and spreads out into bands. Bands farther down along the gel will be smaller and more positive, they also travel faster due to a smaller, less negative size.
in the early 1900s one of the main reasons most scientists believed proteins were carriers of genetic information was that
proteins were believed to be much more complex molecules that nucleic acids
transformation involves
the transfer of genetic material, often from one cell to another
in his work with Streptococcus pneumoniae and mice, Griffith found that
some heat-stable chemical from the S strain was transferred to the live R strain bacteria
in trying to determine whether DNA or proteins were the genetic material Hershey and Chase made use of which of the following facts
DNA contains Phosphorus, but proteins do not
Scientists responsible for growing special types of bacteriophages w/ special 23p and 35s isotopes to find that DNA was for sure genetic material
Hershey and Chase
scientists that published the DNA structure
watson and crick
a DNA molecule of an organism has thymine as 30% of its bases. What percentage of its bases would be guanine
20%
in DNA, the designations 3’ and 5’ refer to the
bonds formed between phosphate groups and carbon atoms of deoxyribose
which of the following does not apply to the Watson and Crick model of DNA
purines will always bond with purines
what is a nucleotide found in DNA
deoxyribose, phosphate group and cytosine
which enzyme catalyzes the elongation of a DNA strand in the 5’ —-> 3’ direction
DNA polymerase
the material that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes made of DNA and proteins
chromatin
spots in eukaryotic DNA where replication starts
replication forks
what is the relationship among DNA, a gene, and a chromosome
a chromosome contains hundreds of genes which are composed of DNA
which types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
transcription involves the transfer of information from
DNA to mRNA
A particular triplet of bases in the DNA molecule is AGT. What is the corresponding triplet in the complementary strand of DNA
TCA
what are the coding segments of a stretch of eukaryotic DNA called
exons
RNA differs from DNA in that RNA
contains ribose as its sugar
contains uracil instead of thymine
what happens during the process of translation
mRNA information is used to produce proteins
the enzyme responsible for carrying out transcription
RNA polymerase
which of the following is not a gene mutation : inversion, deletion, insertion, substitution, or frameshift
inversion
which gene mutation would be most likely to have a catastrophic effect on the functioning of a protein
a base deletion near the beginning of a coding sequence
which component is NOT directly involved in the process known as translation : mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, ribosomes, or DNA
DNA
the process of making an exact copy of DNA is called
replication
the 2 DNA strands are called — because their backbones run in the opposite direction
anti-parallel
the 3 nucleotide bases on the tRNA molecule that is complementary to mRNA is called an
anticodon
all nucleic acids are made of individual building blocks called
nucleotides
Watson and Crick used this scientists X-ray diffraction of DNA to help determine the structure of DNA
Rosalind Franklin
