SEMESTER 2 EXAM FLASH CARDS
Dunphy
Stage 1: early adolescent -cliques
4-8 members of same sex , isolated groups
Dunphy
Stage 2: Development of the crowd
Unisex groups start to interact with other groups
Dunphy
Stage 3: Unisex groups form heterosexual cliques
Forming heterosexual groups, dating occurs in upper-status members
Dunphy
Stage 4: Fully developed crowd; heterosexual cliques in close association
Heterosexual groups in close association
Dunphy
Stage 5: Crowd disintegration
Couples break away from the group
PET scan
Position emission tomography
•PET scans are based on the glucose (sugar) consumption of the brain.
A radioactive tracer that decays by emitting a position is injected in to the body, usually the blood stream.
•Sugar is weakly radioactive and a PET scan can show which areas of the brain are using more energy or consuming more glucose.
•Higher glucose levels reflect higher brain activity
•By placing positron detectors around the brain and picking up the activity, the computer generates pictures based on the metabolic information
•Used alongside MRI as they provide specific information about areas of the brain that can be linked to particular activities such as reading, where there are tumours or damage.
FMRI scan
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
FMRI is a functional neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled.
CAT scan
Computerised axial tomography
A type of x-ray that translates the scanned picture into a clear two dimensional image of the brain via the computer.
Scans through 180 degrees and takes a measurement every 1 degree, giving rise to the pictures.
CAT scans aid in the detection of tumours, strokes and other injuries, which can aid in finding out the reasons for changed behaviour and personality
MRI scan
Magnetic resonance imaging
Uses a strong magnetic field rather than an x-ray to produce an image of the brain. The patient is placed in a magnetic field and is then scanned.
The resulting image is a computer-enhanced three-dimensional picture of the brain (or the body) from which a two dimensional ‘slice’ can be selected and displayed, rotated or enlarged
This enables detection of tumours and other abnormalities, which again can be linked to altered behaviours or personality characteristics.
EEG scan
electroencephalography
Used when we want to investigate the whole brain rather than parts.
An EEG measures brain waves or electrical activity in the brain
Different patterns or brain waves can indicate problems with the brain such as epilepsy or tumours, as well as being used to describe various types of behaviour such as sleeping and the effects of hypnosis which alter these patterns
What are some (3) cultural differences in non-verbal communication:
- Facial expressions: Western cultures facial expressions are more severe/ exaggerated than Eastern cultures
- Gestures: In Thailand beckening someone with your palm up is rude, so they do it with their palm down
- Body language: In Middle Eastern countries it is insulting to cross an ankle over a knee and display the sole of the shoe while talking to another person
Type of non-verbal communication:
•Touch and smell
Smells have the power to conjure up memories and emotions
Eg. Breastfeeding
Cultural variables: in some Asian countries it is not acceptable to breastfeed babies
Common obstacles of effective communication:
- Being distracted and only listening with ‘half an ear’: The listener may pretend to be listening, giving eye contact and saying ‘uh huh’, ‘really’, etc. at appropriate times but they are really thinking about other things.
- ‘topping’ the speaker: the listener follows the conversation until they have heard something they can top with a better story.
- Being judgemental: saying or implying, ‘you should have known better’ or ‘I told you so’
Crowd
Larger groups of adolescence (or others) with similar identities or affiliations
Such as Eagles or Dockers supporters at a home game
Clique:
Small groups who interact frequently
Dyad:
Pairs of close friends or lovers.
Peers
People who interact on fairly equal terms, i.e. They have similar status and are usually of similar age and have similar interests
Liking definition
A feeling of regard or fondness
Difference between pro-social and anti-social behaviour
Prosocial behaviour is any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society, whereas Anti-social behaviour is any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or a society.
What are 3 determinants of liking:
- similarity
- proximity
- reciprocity
Reciprocity
•knowing or thinking someone likes us is enough to make us attracted to them
Eg. Inviting us to their party, being paid a compliment, etc.
Relational influence:
•proximity/ propinquity:
In order to develop friendships, you have to meet these friends, so physical proximity is essential.
Living close by is a major factor in the development of friendships and longer term relationships.
This is due to 3 factors believed to be linked to physical closeness.
These include:
•familiarity
•availability
•expectation of continued social interaction
Relational influences:
Similarity
For many friends and couples, there are similarities in their attitudes and values, their dress, their level of education and their views about politics and religion.
Communication between potential friends must take place and this often occurs when mutual attraction has been signalled.
Curiously, mutual attraction is sometimes based on the degree of similarities between people.
Group testing
Refers to any procedure which breaks up the task of locating elements of a set which have certain properties into tests on subsets(‘groups’) rather than on individual elements.
When group testing would be used:
Generally used for mass testing situations or when you are testing to account for a large population.
Disadvantages of group testing:
- Examiner= less opportunity to establish rapport, obtain cooperation and maintain interest.
- no one-on-one interaction.
- emotionally disturbed children tend to do worse than in individual tests.
- examinees responses may become restricted
- unable to identify when examinees become anxious or develop feelings of discomfort.
Advantages of group testing:
- Administered in large numbers- short time frame
- simplified examiner role
- scoring= more objective than individual testing
- often performed in large groups of representative samples which can often be used and thus can lead to better established norms within the study.
Individual testing
Testing done upon an individual rather than a group
Disadvantages of individual testing
- takes longer to collect results
- costs more
- requires highly-trained examiners
Advantages of individual testing
- examiner able to record measurements of strengths and weaknesses per examinee
- Provide for the examiner to choose items based on the test takers prior responses
- Require more one-on-one interaction
- able to direct focus towards certain examinees
- scores not as dependent on reading abilities as group testing
When individual testing would be used:
To assess individual differences, as opposed to accounting for a large sample of the population
How is mental age calculated
By the Alfred-Binet scale
Limitations of traditional intelligence tests:
- limited measurement
- measure of experience, not biology
- Biased Norms
- inaccurate measurement
Galton:
Theory+explanation of key findings
*General intelligence
•suggested that intelligence was a general ability that changed with environment and can be measured similarly to height and weight
Spearman:
Theory and explanation of key findings
*General intelligence
•Underlined specific mental abilities, which are measured by every task on an intelligence test
•Intelligence is thought to be a combination of both general intelligence (g) and specific intelligence (s)
Gardner:
Theory and explanation of key findings
*Multiple intelligence: •seven intelligences= 1.Linguistic (spoken/written language) 2.Logical (solve problems) 3.Musical (perform music with rhythm/tone/pitch) 4.kinaesthetic (movement of bodily parts) 5.spatial (use of visual images) 6.Interpersonal (understanding others) 7.Intrapersonal (understanding yourself)
Wechsler:
-Theory and explanation of key findings
*Modern intelligence testing
•Developed a modern empirical model: He designed Intelligence tests for both adults and children
•His test had 7 sub-tests, which arranged questions from easy to difficult
•focused on both verbal and non-verbal skills
•results can show learning problems and cognitive strengths
Binet & simon:
Overview of theory:
(General intelligence testing)
- Created Binet-Simon scale, comprised a variety of tasks they thought were representative of typical children’s abilities at various ages
- Consisted of 30 tasks of increasing complexity
- Score on the Binet-Simon scale would reveal the child’s mental age
- aimed for school children with intellectual disabilities
Goleman:
Theory and explanation of key findings
*Emotional intelligence (EQ)
•The ability to express and understand emotions
•A high emotional intelligence can improve an individual’s social interactions
Terman:
Theory and explanation of key findings
*IQ- intelligence testing
•Terman revised Binet’s work and produced standford-Binet testing, a test to measure a persons intelligence.
•The test used the IQ calculation:
IQ= (mental age/chronological age)x100
Binet&Simon- overview of theory
- believed intelligence to be a learned entity
- formed to measure intelligence of children aged 3-12; believed children had a different form of intelligence than adults
- consisted of 30 tasks of increasing complexity
- would reveal child’s mental age;then compared with those within their age group to predict which children would struggle and need special help
- scale attempted to create a test which was standardised and would allow for the measurement of a child’s intelligence in the present
Emotional intelligence
The ability to identify, use, understand and manage emotions in positive ways to relieve stress,communicate effectively, empathise with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict
Multiple intelligence
•Intelligence actually consists of 7 separate and independent abilities, each of which should be assessed and evaluated separately. •The 7 intelligences include: 1.Linguistic intelligence 2.Musical intelligence 3.Mathematical-logic intelligence 4.Spatial intelligence 5.Bodily kinaesthetic intelligence 6.interpersonal intelligence 7.intrapersonal intelligence
Spearman- overview of theory:
- Strongly influenced by Galton
- he too assumed a single general intelligence measure reflected a persons mental capacity.
- supported idea of intelligence testing.
- assumed if you did well at one task (i.e. Reading) you will do well at another (such as language)
- was a combination of general intelligence theory and s.
- spearman’s theory often called the 2-factor theory of intelligence
Goleman- overview of theory:
Developed argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for work place success in working with emotional intelligence.
[emotional intelligence]
Gardner- overview of theory:
•argued that being intelligent involved more than being able to solve problems- it involved being able to produce things that are relevant for particular settings.
•It also involved being able to produce things that are relevant for particular settings
•proposed that instead of one general intelligence, each of us had 7 kinds intelligence.
[Multiple intelligence theory]
=Linguistic,logical,musical,kinaesthetic,spatial,interpersonal,intrapersonal
Weschler-overview of theory;
- Designed the Weschler-Bellevue intelligence scale to measure the intellectual performance by adults
- created the Weschler intelligence scales
3 Weschler scales=
•WPPSI
•WISC
•WAIS
[Modern intelligence testing]
Non-verbal communication:
- Body language
- Gestures
- Physical distance
- Facial expressions
- Touch and smell
Type of non-verbal communication:
•FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
•A powerful form of non-verbal communication and one that is learnt very early in life.
Eg. Smiling
Cultural variables: Western cultures facial-expressions more severe/exaggerated than Eastern cultures
Type of non-verbal communication:
•PHYSICAL DISTANCE
•The physical distance we put between ourselves and others convey meaning
Eg. The intimate zone: typical of people in close relationships, such as family members or lovers
•Cultural variables: People of southern European origin usually are comfortable standing closer to people with whom they are talking to than people of Anglo-Saxon origin
Type of non-verbal communication
BODY LANGUAGE
•Thoughts, intentions or feelings that are expressed by body behaviours, such as posture and use of space
- eg. Crossing your arms
•Cultural variables: In middle eastern countries it is insulting to cross an ankle over a knee and display the sole of the shoe while talking to another person
Type of non-verbal communication:
GESTURES
•A movement of position of the hand, arm, body, head or face that is expressive of an idea, opinion or emotion.
Eg. Beckoning to someone else over with your head or hand.
-Cultural variables: In Thailand beckoning someone over with your palm up is rude, so they do it with their palm down.
Effective communication:
- Verbal speech or other methods of relaying information that get a point across.
- An example of effective communication is when you talk in clear and simple terms.
How can hormones affect behaviour:
Hormones can affect our body chemistry and lead to changes in how we feel, think and behave
How can drugs affect behaviour:
Drugs affect our body chemistry and lead to changes in how we feel, think and behave- these are all altered accordingly depending on which drugs are used.
How do adoption studies support both nature and nurture explanations in general:
- If the adoptive child is similar to adoptive parent then this supports nurture
- If the adoptive child is similar to their biological parent then this supports nature
How twin studies support genetic explanations in general:
•Identical twins are formed by one egg and one sperm splitting, therefore they have 100% identical DNA. Fraternal twins are from two eggs and two sperm, so have similar DNA to normal siblings. Identical twins that are reared apart show that any differences are from environmental factors (nurture).
Define nature vs nurture:
This debate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (eg. genetic) or acquired (eg. Learned) characteristics.
Define the stages of cognitive development according to Piaget:
- Sensori motor
- Pre-operational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Social development:
Development of normal everyday language and social skills.
Emotional development:
The emergence of a child’s experience, expression, understanding and regulation of emotions from birth through late adolescence.
Describe the physical area of development in regards to the impact of play:
•Developing fine motors skills. Practice of developing motor skills. Promotes participation in sport. Gives a variety of opportunities to develop skills.
Describe the cognitive area of development in regards to the impact of play:
•Decision-making is important in developing skills. Anticipation of skill, practise (learning the skill and the stages of the skill) and memory.
Effect of physical development on ‘Body image’ in males:
•More likely to become flexible, assertive and insightful in later life, whereas early maturing boys tend to be more confident and popular in school.
Effect of physical development on ‘Body image’ in Females:
- More likely to be involved with sexual activity, drugs and alcohol than late maturing girls.
- Also demonstrated greater levels of parental conflict and lower grades at school, despite having the same intelligence as late maturing girls.
What are Robinson’s social skills:
- Shaking hands
- Forms/Terms of address
- Politeness
Robinson’s social skills:
•Shaking hands (1st social skill)
- Greeting or leaving a social gesture- originates a way of showing you are unarmed.
- It communicates a form of friendship and mutual respect, goodwill or trust.
- Tend to be a more formal setting- a sense of status
- To reject/refuse a handshake is a sign of rudeness
Robinson’s social skills:
•how shaking hands can differ in two cultures:
•Muslim women cannot shake hands and may become obsolete in a few decades
•Whereas, Australian women are allowed to, and can, shake hands with both genders.
•Might have a different handshake in different cultures
Eg. Highfive, slap hands or pound.
Robinson’s social skills:
•Forms/Terms of Address
(2nd social skill)
- While more common for Australians to use first names, it is still recommended that if unsure about status to use formal address.
- i.e. Sir, Madam, Mr or Master.
- Start with a more formal form of address and then move to informal as friendship develops.
Robinson’s social skills:
•How formal address can differ in two countries
•Language may be different in different cultures.
Eg. Don’t use ‘sir’ and use more affectionate slang language to greet a friend.
Robinson’s social skills:
•Politeness
(3rd social skill)
- Important basic communication as it is a way making sure we display good manners when we talk to others. If we display manners and respect towards others through recognising status, we ensure neither party is embarrassed- ‘Hey’, ‘Could you’, ‘Would you mind!’, -varying depending on status and occasion.
- Negative face or politeness is seen when you make a request seem less imposing. Positive Politeness or face is when we wish to be approved of and liked and do so through the use of direct speech.
Robinson’s social skills:
•How politeness can differ in two countries:
- May start conversations with a more ‘informal’ address- eg. Call teachers by their first name
- Might use more direct forms of speech
- May not use terms like ‘excuse me’ or wait for a female to enter a room first.
Interpersonal relationships:
Definitions
An association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring.
Factors affecting the severity of hearing impairments:
- Age of identification
- Age of intervention
- Severity of loss
- Type of intervention
Overcoming the impact of hearing impairments:
AusLan+cochlear implants
AusLan: Australian sign language
Cochlear implants: An electric medical device that replaces the function of damaged inner ear. Unlike hearing aids, which make louder sounds, cochlear implants do the work of damaged parts of the inner ear (cochlear) to provide sound signals to the brain.
The impact of hearing impairment:
- Fewer education and job opportunities due to impaired communication
- Social withdrawal due to reduced access to services and difficulties communicating with others
- Emotional problems caused by a drop in self-esteem and confidence.
Hearing impairment:
A hearing impairment is a hearing loss that prevents a person from totally receiving sounds through the ear. If the loss is mild, the person has difficulty hearing faint or distant speech. A person may use a hearing aid to amplify sounds.
Internal communication networks within groups:
Transmission of information between organisational members or parts of the organisation.
