Semester 1 Exam CNM Flashcards
List TWO functions of connective tissue in the body
- Structural framework (bone or cartilage)
- Transport nutrients and wastes (blood)
- Protection for vital organs (bone or cartilage or adipose)
- Support and interconnection (tendons or ligaments)
- Insulation (adipose tissue)
- Energy store
- Production of blood and lymphatic cells (adipose tissue, bone marrow)
- Defence and repair (blood, lymph)
Functions of connective tissue are varied and essential for maintaining body structure and function.
List TWO examples of positive feedback
- Childbirth
- Milk production
- Enzyme reactions
- Immunity
- Blood clotting
Positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses or processes in the body.
State the 23rd pair of chromosomes for the male gender
XY
The XY chromosomes determine male sex characteristics.
What is meant by facilitated diffusion?
The movement of larger substances from high to low concentration with the aid of transmembrane proteins
Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that does not require energy.
Describe the main role of canaliculi in the osteon
Provides a route for nutrients / waste
Canaliculi are small channels in the eyelids that drain tears into the tear sac.
What condition is characterized by decreased bone mineral density?
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis increases the risk of fractures in the body.
What mineral is required to ensure muscle relaxes during contraction?
Magnesium
What is a key difference between skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle?
Skeletal muscle is voluntary and attaches between bones, while cardiac muscle is involuntary and forms the heart muscle.
What movement does the psoas muscle perform?
Hip flexor; pulls thigh towards trunk.
Name one cause of impingement syndrome.
Overuse and working with the arms raised overhead.
List two signs or symptoms of impingement syndrome.
- Shoulder ache in early stages
- Pain when abducting the shoulder, rotating, or reaching into back pocket
What is one positional fault associated with impingement syndrome?
When the head of the humerus does not sit well in the socket.
What is a possible anatomical issue that can lead to impingement syndrome?
Oddly sized acromion resulting in reduced space.
Fill in the blank: The painful arc of movement is a symptom of _______.
Impingement syndrome
True or False: Cardiac muscle generates its own rhythmic contraction.
True
Name ONE secondary muscle of ventilation
Trapezius, Sternocleidomastoid, Scalenes
These muscles assist in the process of breathing, particularly during strenuous activity.
State ONE alveolar cell and briefly describe its function
Type I alveolar cells: Support gas exchange
Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, preventing alveolar collapse, while alveolar macrophages function to engulf and destroy microbes.
Complete the following sentence: Smoking cigarettes is a key cause of COPD. It causes oxidative stress which damages the delicate _______ and promotes inflammation throughout the respiratory tract.
Cilia
Cilia are hair-like structures that help clear mucus and debris from the respiratory tract.
List ONE possible reason for increasing asthma prevalence
Earlier weaning, Inadequate exposure to pathogens in childhood, Inherited dysbiosis, Food additives, Leaky gut syndrome, Nutritional deficiencies
Factors such as a sterile environment or the use of cleaning products can contribute to this increase.
Name ONE blood plasma protein and briefly describe its main function
Albumin: Carrier of substances of lipids or steroid hormones, maintains osmotic pressure
Globulins are involved in immunity, while fibrinogen is essential for blood clotting.
What is the main function of Type II alveolar cells?
Secrete alveolar fluid that contains pulmonary surfactant
This fluid allows gases to diffuse through it and prevents alveolar collapse.
True or False: Alveolar macrophages are leukocytes that engulf and destroy microbes entering the alveoli.
True
They play a crucial role in the immune defense of the lungs.
Fill in the blank: Fibrinogen is also called _______.
clotting factor one
It is essential for the blood clotting process.
What is a key effect of oxidative stress caused by smoking on the respiratory tract?
Damages cilia and promotes inflammation
This can lead to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Name ONE cause of polycythaemia
Occurs at high altitude
Other causes may include genetic factors or unknown origins.
Indicate ONE substance that the heart can use to make glucose during exercise
Lactic acid
Lactic acid is produced during anaerobic metabolism and can be converted to glucose.
State ONE function of cholesterol
Cell membrane integrity
Cholesterol is also vital in the brain, involved in vitamin D production, calcium metabolism, and the synthesis of sex hormones.
Describe the effect of vasoconstriction on blood pressure
Increases blood pressure
Vasoconstriction reduces the diameter of blood vessels, leading to increased resistance and higher blood pressure.
List TWO signs and/or symptoms of angina pectoris
- Heavy or constricting chest pain
- Pain radiating to arms, neck, jaw, or back
Other symptoms may include pain easing on rest and shortness of breath
Name ONE steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex.
Glucocorticoids OR cortisol
Other options include mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) and sex hormones (androgens).
What is the effect of excess growth hormone in gigantism?
Results in the person growing to massive heights while the bones are still developing
This occurs due to excess growth hormone before the closure of growth plates.
What is the effect of excess growth hormone in acromegaly?
Patient grows outwards as opposed to upwards after growth plates have closed
This occurs post puberty when growth plates are no longer active.
What is a characteristic feature of acromegaly and gigantism?
Excess growth hormone
Both conditions are caused by an overproduction of growth hormone, leading to distinct physical changes.
How does excess growth hormone affect gigantism?
Results in the person growing to massive heights while bones are still developing
This occurs due to the presence of growth plates that have not yet closed.
How does excess growth hormone affect acromegaly?
Patient grows outwards as opposed to upwards post puberty or after growth plates closed
This results in enlarged features rather than increased height.
Name one epidermal cell found in skin.
Keratinocytes
They protect from heat, microbes, and chemicals.
What is the function of melanocytes?
Contributes to skin colour and absorbs UV light
Melanin produced by melanocytes surrounds the nuclei of keratinocytes.
What is the role of Langerhans cells in the skin?
Involved in skin ‘surveillance’ as immune cells
They help protect against pathogens.
Name one complication of burns to the skin.
Dehydration
Other complications include hypothermia, hypovolaemic shock, infection, renal failure, and contractures.
What is another complication of burns to the skin?
Hypothermia
Impaired thermoregulation can lead to significant heat loss.
What is one difference between white and red pulp in the spleen?
White pulp contains lymphocytes or macrophages
Red pulp contains all the components of circulating blood.
How can septicaemia become a complication of lymphangitis?
Infection may spread to the blood
This can lead to serious systemic infections.
What is a characteristic feature of acromegaly and gigantism?
Excess growth hormone
Both conditions are caused by an overproduction of growth hormone, leading to distinct physical changes.
How does excess growth hormone affect gigantism?
Results in the person growing to massive heights while bones are still developing
This occurs due to the presence of growth plates that have not yet closed.
How does excess growth hormone affect acromegaly?
Patient grows outwards as opposed to upwards post puberty or after growth plates closed
This results in enlarged features rather than increased height.
Name one epidermal cell found in skin.
Keratinocytes
They protect from heat, microbes, and chemicals.
What is the function of melanocytes?
Contributes to skin colour and absorbs UV light
Melanin produced by melanocytes surrounds the nuclei of keratinocytes.
What is the role of Langerhans cells in the skin?
Involved in skin ‘surveillance’ as immune cells
They help protect against pathogens.
Name one complication of burns to the skin.
Dehydration
Other complications include hypothermia, hypovolaemic shock, infection, renal failure, and contractures.
What is another complication of burns to the skin?
Hypothermia
Impaired thermoregulation can lead to significant heat loss.
What is one difference between white and red pulp in the spleen?
White pulp contains lymphocytes or macrophages
Red pulp contains all the components of circulating blood.
How can septicaemia become a complication of lymphangitis?
Infection may spread to the blood
This can lead to serious systemic infections.
Which joints are specifically affected by gout in the body?
Typically, the big toe (metatarsophalangeal joint) and other joints such as the knees, ankles, and fingers
Gout primarily affects the big toe but can also impact various other joints.
How does excess uric acid produce an inflammatory response in gout?
Excess uric acid forms solid crystals or monosodium urate on cartilage surfaces, causing white blood cells to infiltrate and activate an acute inflammatory response
This inflammatory response is a key factor in the pain and swelling associated with gout.
Name ONE endocrine disorder that may contribute to the development of gout.
Type 2 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes is associated with metabolic disturbances that can lead to increased uric acid levels.
Describe TWO features which may be observed in joints affected by gout.
- Red joints
- Hot joints
- Swollen joints
- Shiny skin over joint
- Tophi
These features are indicative of inflammation and the buildup of uric acid crystals.
Name ONE allopathic treatment for gout.
Allopurinol
Other treatments may include colchicine and corticosteroid injections.
