Semester 1 Exam Flashcards
What are the key functions of the musculoskeletal system?
- Protects the vital organs (such as the brain, the spine and the lungs)
- Support and Posture
- Storage site for fuels, fats and minerals
- Production of blood cells (haematopoiesis)
What does the Anatomical Term Superior mean?
Closer to the head than another part
What does the Anatomical term inferior mean?
closer to the feet than another part
What does the anatomical term anterior or ventral
towards the front of the body
What does the anatomical term posterior or dorsal mean
towards the back of the body
What does the anatomical term medial mean
towards the imaginary midline of the body
what does the anatomical term lateral mean
away from the imaginary midline of the body
What does the anatomical term proximal mean
a body part closer to its attachment point
what does the anatomical term distal mean
a body part further away from the point of attachment
What does the anatomical term superficial mean
a body part closer to the surface of the body than another
What does the anatomical term deep mean
a body part that is internal or further from the surface of the body than another
What does the anatomical term palmar mean
the palm side of the hand
what does the anatomical term plantar mean
the sole side of the foot
The human skeleton is divided into two skeletons, what are they called?
Axial and appendicular
What does the axial skeleton consist of
the skull, vertebral column and rib cage
what does the appendicular skeleton consist of
limbs and girdles (pelvis girdle ect) that connect to the axial skeleton
What are the five sections of the vertebral column?
Cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx
What is the cervical vertebrae responsible for?
supporting and moving the head
What is the purpose of the thoracic vertebrae
connect the ribs to the spinal column, help to protect the heart and lungs
Lumbar vertebrae have a…
high weight-carrying capacity, and are a large attachment site for powerful muscles
What does the Sacrum do
distributes the weight of the upper body, provides an attachment point for many muscles promoting movement
Main function of the coccyx
to provide a site for muscle attachment to allow many movements to occur
How many innominate bones are fused together to make up the pelvis
two
What are the innominate bones of the pelvis made up of?
Three individual bones
- the ilium
- the ischium
- the pubis
Difference between carpals and tarsals?
Carpals are the bones in the hand and tarsals are bones in the foot
What is a joint?
the place where bones meet
The three main categories of a joint are
Fibrous - no movement
Cartilaginous - slight movement
Synovial - free movement
Features of a synovial joint allowing for free movement are
synovial capsule, synovial membrane and synovial fluid, cartilage at the end of the bones and the ligaments
What is a ligament
the connective tissue that joins one bone to another bone
Movement is described as occurring across planes, and they are
Sagittal, Transverse, Frontal
What is the Sagittal plane
divides the body into left and right
what is the transverse (horizontal) plane
divides the body into superior and inferior sections
What is the frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
When does flexion occur
when the angle between articulating (joining) bones is decreased, these muscles are called flexors
when does extension occur
when the angle between articulating bones is increased, these muscles are called extensors
when does abduction occur
when a body part is moved away from the midline of the body
when does adduction occur
when a body part is moved toward the midline of the body
Rotation occurs when
a bone turns on its own axis within a joint
what is medial rotation
rotation towards the body’s midline
what is lateral rotation
rotation away from the body’s midline
What is circumduction
when a limb moves in a circular fashion
What is supination
when the forearm is rotated, turning from palm down to palm up,
What is pronation
when the forearm is rotated to face the palm downwards
What is plantar flexion
when the toes are pointed downward
what is dorsiflexion
when the toes are pointed upwards
What is inversion
when the foots turns so the sole faces inwards
what is eversion
when the foot turns so the sole faces outward
What is elevation
movement of the scapula upward
what is depression
movement of the scapula downwards
The six types of synovial joints
gliding, condyloid, pivot, saddle, hinge, ball and socket
What is a gliding joint?
joints that occur between flat surfaces, allowing bones to move past each other, e.g. radius and ulna
What is a condyloid joint
involves an oval-like surface that fits into an elliptical cavity, e.g. metacarpals/tarsals in the phalanges
What is a pivot joint
a moving bone rotates around a fixed bone. e.g. atlas and the axis
What is a saddle joint
when surfaces of one bone are concave and the other is convex, e.g. the base of the thumb where the metacarpal and carpal bones join
What is a hinge joint
joints allowing movement only in one plane, allowing flexion and extension, e.g. elbow
What is a ball and socket joint
joints occurring where a rounded head of bone joints into a bone cavity. e.g. shoulder
What are the three types of muscles in the body
Cardiac - muscle tissues making up the walls of the heart
Smooth - muscle tissues making up the organs of the body e.g. the intestine
Skeletal - muscles attached to bones that are under voluntary control
What is a tendon
The connective tissue that connects a muscle to a bone
What are the hamstring muscles called
The bicep femoris (lateral muscle)
the semimembranosus (the medial muscle)
the semitendinosus (the middle muscle)
What are the Quadricep muscles
Rectus Femoris, Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius
What is a muscle fibre
the elongated cells that make up muscle tissue
What is muscle fibre surrounded by
a connective tissue layer called endomysium
What is a muscle fascicle
bundle of skeletal muscles
What are muscle fascicles surrounded by
a connective tissue called perimysium
What is an epimysium
dense connective tissue surrounding the muscle
What is a tendon
connective tissue which connect muscles to bones
What is the origin
where the muscle attaches to a stable bone that moves less
what is the insertion
where the muscle attaches to the bone that moves due to the action of the muscle
What are the five different muscle fibre arrangements?
Circular, Convergent, Pennate, Parallel, Fusiform
What are circular muscle fibres
fibres arranged in a ring, surround the openings in the body, e.g. muscles around the mouth
What are convergent muscle fibres
muscles where the origin is wider than the point of intersection, creating a fan shape of fibres, strong muscles that allow for versatility with movement, e.g. pectoralis major
What are Pennate muscle fibres
fibres attach obliquely (on an angle) to the tendon, shorter and thicker than other muscle shapes, allow for large force production, but less range of motion
What are the three types of Pennate muscle fibres
Unipennate- fascicles are all on one side of the tendon, e.g. muscles in hand
Bipennate - fascicles on both sides on the tendon e.g. rectus femoris
Multipennate- muscle fibres orientated at different angles along the axis, the tendon also branches onto other tendons e.g. deltoid
What are parallel muscle fibres
fibres run parallel along the axis of the muscle, fibres are uniform in size and length, usually arranged in a flat, strap like manner, muscles have a high range of motion, making them well suited for fast contractions, e.g. muscles in the neck
What are fusiform muscle fibres
spindle-shaped muscles with a large muscle belly, wider in the middle and taper off smaller toward the origin and insertion, allow for fast contraction and a wide range of motion, e.g. biceps brachii
What are the two categories of muscle fibres
Slow twitch (type 1)
Fast twitch (type 2)
Describe Slow twitch fibres
recruited for aerobic exercise, longer duration of a low-moderate intensity, greater capacity to use oxygen
Contraction speed - slow
Mitochondrial density - high
Capillary density - high
Fatigue-resistance - high
Strength of force production - Low
Describe Fast Twitch fibres
recruited for power/strength and anaerobic exercise for fast, forceful muscular contractions
Contraction speed- Fast
Mitochondrial density - Low
Capillary density - Low
Fatigue- resistance - low
Strength of force production - high
Microscopic structure of the muscle and how a muscle contracts
- Each muscle fibre is made up of chains of smaller myofibrils
- Myofibrils are composed of long proteins- including actin and myosin, which are organised into thick and thin myofilaments that repeat along the length of the myofibril
- Each section/ unit of contraction along the myofibril is referred to as a sarcomere
Sections of the sarcomere
The I Band - only contains thin actin filaments
The A Band - when the actin and myosin overlap
The H Zone/Band - contains thick myosin filaments only
The Z Disc - end of sarcomere
What is the sliding filament theory?
- explanation of how a muscle contracts
Explains the mechanism of a muscle contraction where proteins (actin + myosin) slide past one another and generate movement
Muscular contractions are consciously controlled by the nervous system
Impulses/messages are sent from the nervous system to trigger the contraction
The steps in the Sliding Filament Theory
1- Relaxed muscle receives an impulse
2- Calcium release at the sarcomere causes myosin to bind with actin as cross bridges form
3- Actin pulled to the A band of the sarcomere
4- Muscle shortens and contracts and force is produced for movement
5- ATP (energy molecule) arrives at myosin causing detachment from actin
6- Cycle continues as long as the nerve impulse continues
When the impulse stops, the sarcomere lengthens and the muscle relaxes
types of muscular contractions
Isoinertial contraction, Isometric contraction, Isokinetic contraction
What are Isoinertial (also isotonic) contractions
a muscular contraction where the muscle shortens and lengthens leading to joint movement, the resistance/load remains the same as the muscle changes in length
Two phases of an Isoinertial contraction
Concentric phase - muscles shortening
Eccentric phase - muscles lengthening
What is an isometric contraction
during an isometric contraction tension is developed in the muscle however there is no change to the length of the muscle or movement at the joint
What is an isokinetic contraction
requires equipment, muscle contracts at a constant speed, the equipment will make changes to the resistance when it detects the muscle speeding up or slowing down so speed is kept constant
What is reciprocal inhibition
A neuromuscular reflex where a pair of muscles work on a joint. The agonist muscle contracts and shortens and the antagonist muscle relaxes and lengthens
What is an agonist muscle
the muscle that contracts to produce movement
What is an antagonist muscle
the muscle that relaxes allowing the contraction to occur
What is a synergist muscle
the muscle/s that contract to assist the agonist
What is the stabilizer muscle
the muscles that contract and hold other bones to allow the movement to occur
What is a neuron cell responsible for
transporting signals throughout the body, movement involves input from both sensory neurons and motor neurons
What do sensory and motor neurons do
sensory neurons carry sensory messages from visual, auditory, touch and proprioceptive input, back to the brain, the brain then sends messages to the muscles via the spinal cord through motor neurons, motor neurons carry messages that stimulate muscles to contract
What is a motor unit
a motor neuron and the muscle fibres it innervates
What is a neuromuscular junction
where a motor neuron and muscle fiber join, nerve impulses travel from the motor neuron at the junction to the muscle fibre, which is then stimulated to contract
What is the All or Nothing Principle
The activation of motor units, an impulse is sent and once the threshold has been meet the muscle fibres of the motor unit maximally contract to produce the required force, when more force is required more motor units will be recruited, when less force is required less motor units will be recruited
What is the Size Principle
The recruitment of motor units from small to large motor units as more force is needed
What are sporting injuries
trauma or overuse injuries that occur due to participation in sport or exercise
Sport injuries can be a result of
- accident
- poor fitness/training
- poor technique
- improper equipment or facilities
- inadequate warm up
- overuse
Cost of sports related injuries
- healthcare cost for treatment
- time lost to employment, school and home
- time lost to future sporting activities
- physical psychological or emotional damage
- equipment and program costs for rehabilitation and prevention
Two classifications of sports injuries
Acute- occur suddenly and usually without warning e.g. hamstring tear
Chronic - associated with overuse of a particular area of the body over a period of time, e.g. shin splints
What are direct injuries
Type of acute injury, a result of external force
What are indirect injuries
type of acute injury, usually sudden change in direction or intensity, the force required is greater than the load the muscle or ligament can sustain
Ligament damage and its classifications
An indirect injury, known as a sprain,
Grade 1 - mild damage
Grade 2 - moderate damage
Grade 3 - complete tear
Ligaments are damaged when
joints move further than the ideal physiological range e.g. hyperextension, dislocation, or in a direction that is not that proper movement at a joint e.g. knee moves sideways
Muscle damage and its classifications
caused when the muscle fibres are damaged due to overload or tearing, indirect injury,
Grade 1 - loses 5% of muscle fibres
Grade 2 - more extensive, but not ruptured
Grade 3 - complete rupture
Muscle strains often occur when
completing eccentric loading movements (muscle is over stretched,
Common acute injuries
Hamstring strain
ACL
Shoulder Dislocation
What are overuse injuries
chronic injury, caused by repetitive or continual performance of some type of movement, can result in tendonitis or stress fractures
Factors that can lead to overuse injuries
Repetition
Insufficient recovery time
Inappropriate increase in training load
Inadequate footwear
Inappropriate training surface
Common musculoskeletal illnesses
Osteoporosis
Arthritis
Osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid Arthritis
What is Osteoporosis
bones with holes, bones lose density and strength, more susceptible to fractures, diagnosed by measuring bone density
Prevention of Osteoporosis
Adequate intake of dietary calcium
Regular weight-bearing and strength training
Vitamin D absorption
Avoid Smoking
What is arthritis
inflammation at joints, two main types; osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis
What is osteoarthritis
caused by a reduction in the normal amount of cartilage tissue
Factors contributing to onset and development of osteoarthritis
joint injury and trauma
excess weight
repetitive joint-loading tasks
sedentary lifestyle
What is Rheumatoid arthritis
Chronic autoimmune inflammation, synovial membrane is attacked in response joint produces excessive synovial fluid, resulting in unwanted tissue growth and bone erosion
Physiological prevention strategies
warm up and cool down
pre-activity screening
training methods: strength training, weight training, core training, flexibility training, static stretching
What is protective equipment
physical aid, example, helmet, mouthgaurd
Benefits of Taping and Bracing
provides extra support, added stability and can minimize the effects of an injury
Cardiovascular system includes
heart, vessels, blood
What is the heart responsible for
sending oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs
What is the function of the Aorta
large artery at the top of the heart that sends the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
What is the function of the pulmonary arteries
transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
What is the function of the pulmonary veins
transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
What is the function of the Superior and Inferior vena cava
bring deoxygenated blood back from the body to the heart
What are the four chambers of the heart
two upper chamber: right and left atriums
two lower chambers: right and left ventricles
Valves of the heart
ensure that blood travels in the same direction during the cardiac cycle
- pulmonic valve
- tricuspid valve
- aortic valve
- mitral valve
Stage One of the Cardiac Cycle
The two atria fill with
-blood coming back from the body (deoxygenated) via the superior and inferior vena cava
-and oxygenated blood coming through the pulmonary veins from the lungs
Stage 2 of the Cardiac Cycle
The pressure resulting from the blood in the atria triggers the opening of the tricuspid and mitral valves – blood then flows into the ventricles
Stages 3 & 4 of the Cardiac Cycle
The atria contract forcing the blood into the ventricles, the valves close.
The pulmonary and aortic valves open, the ventricles contract forcing blood into the aorta (heading for the body) OR the pulmonary artery (headed to the lungs)
What is heart rate
the number of times the heart beats per minute bpm
What is stroke volume
the amount of blood (mL) leaving the left ventricle per beat
What happens to SV and HR when going from rest to sub-maximal intensity
SV & HR increase to increase the amount of oxygenated blood to the working muscles
What happens to HR as exercise increases
as intensity increases heart rate increases, for submaximal exercise your heart rate will plateau as you continue to work at the same intensity
What happens to SV as exercise increases
when working at intensities beyond sub-maximal, SV plateaus and there is no further increase
Why does SV plateau as intensity increases beyond submaximal
at an increased intensity there is an increased heart rate which increases the return of blood back to the heart (venous blood) the left ventricle has a limited filling capacity, so with a reduced filling time, it can only fill so much blood and has a maximal limit
What is Cardiac Output
amount of blood leaving the left ventricle per minute, CO = SV X HR, higher intensity the greater the CO
Four main components of blood
Red Blood cells
White blood cells
Plasma
Platelets
Red blood cells
produced in bone marrow,
contain the protein haemoglobin
carry oxygen to body tissues and muscles
White blood cells
produced in bone marrow, lymph tissue, spleen
important role in immunity
Plasma
clear yellow fluid - 90% water
carrier nutrients, transports waste, assists platelets with clotting
helps to maintain internal body temperature
Platelets
produced in bone marrow
help form blood clots to stop bleeding
Plasma assists with what during exercise
removal of carbon dioxide and sweating to prevent overheating
What protein does oxygen bind with to be transported to tissues in the body
haemoglobin
Describe Arteries
transport blood away from the heart
thick and elastic outer wall with a small lumen (space inside)
blood travels under higher pressure
branches into smaller arterioles
Describe Veins
transport blood towards the heart
thin walls with large lumen
blood travels under low pressure
have valves present to prevent backflow of blood
branch into smaller venules
Describe Capillaries
very thin walls, one cell thick, surround tissues for diffusion of oxygen
Blood flow through the vascular network
Arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins
The pulmonary circuit
Pulmonary circulation involves the flow of deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart.
the systemic circuit
Systemic circulation distributes oxygenated blood to body tissues and organs.
Pulmonary circulation steps
The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava receive deoxygenated blood from the body and it travels into the right atrium
The right atrium contracts – this forces the tricuspid valve to open allowing blood through to the right ventricle – and close again
Blood is force out of the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery and to the lungs where carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged
Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and into the left atrium. The left atrium contracts – forcing the mitral valve open and blood is forced into the left ventricle – the mitral valve will then close
Systemic circulation steps
The left ventricle contracts and pumps blood into the aorta under high pressure, which is then pumped via arteries to tissues and organs in the body
What is the role of precapillary sphincters
Blood flow at the capillary is controlled by precapillary sphincters, smooth muscle at the capillary located where it joins a vessel
The sphincters open and close to control the flow of blood at the capillaries
What is vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction reduces blood flow, blood vessels constrict
What is vasodilation
vasodilation increases blood flow, blood vessels widen
What is the muscle pump
Muscles contract to push on veins, aiding in venous return to the heart, particularly during exercise.
What does the respiratory system include
mouth, nose, trachea, pharynx, bronchi and bronchioles, lungs and alveoli
What is the function of the respiratory system
breath in air from the environment, transfer oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood, return air back to the environment
What is external respiration
air/gases moving into and out of the lungs
what is pulmonary diffusion
movement of gases from the lungs to the bloodstream
What is inspiration
breathing in, active process involving contraction of intercostal muscles and diaphragm, leading to increased thoracic cavity size and decreased lung pressure, gases move from high to low pressure therefore moving quickly out of the lungs
What is expiration
breathing out Passive process resulting from relaxation of intercostal muscles and diaphragm, leading to decreased thoracic cavity size and increased lung pressure.
what is tidal volume
the amount of air inhaled and exhaled L/breath
What happens to tidal volume during exercise at different intensities?
peaks at sub-maximal intensity, as oxygen demands increase, greater amounts are delivered from the lungs by increasing the respiratory rate
What is ventilation
volume of air moved into and out of respiratory tract each minute, calculated by respiratory rate x tidal volume
What is breathing controlled by
respiratory control center located in the brain stem
How is breathing controlled in the respiratory control center
sensors constantly monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream, which adjusts breathing rate to maintain homeostasis
What is happening when a person is at steady state
the right amount of oxygen is being transferred to their blood when they inhale and the right amount of carbon dioxide is exchanged and exits the blood when they exhale
What occurs in respiratory control center when a person moves from rest to exercise then back to rest
oxygen levels in the blood decrease, carbon dioxide levels increase
this is sensed by the respiratory control center and increases both heart rate and breathing rate to adjust the levels, supported by O2 and CO2 sensors in the aorta which also monitor concentration levels of gases as blood leaves the heart
as activity stops, the respiratory control center slows down heart and breathing rate to maintain homeostasis in the blood stream
What is respiratory rate and what happens to it during exercise
the number of breaths taken per minute
when exercise begins respiratory rates rise sharply, this is triggered by the increase if CO2 concentration in the blood
What happens to tidal volume (depth of breathing) during exercise
increases until its maximum is reached at submaximal intensity, where it plateaus, due to increased respiratory rate the brain stimulates deeper breaths to increase O2 supply to the working muscles
What happens to ventilation during exercise
as intensity increases ventilation increases until maximal levels are reached
What is oxygen deficit
when the demand for oxygen exceeds the body’s ability to supply it
what is steady state
oxygen demand meets oxygen supply
When does VO2 max occur
when the maximum amount of oxygen that can be taken in, transported and utilized is reached, cannot be sustained for extended periods, as body will not be able to supply sufficient oxygen to the muscles and the onset of fatigue will occur
What is EPOC
post-exercise period where the oxygen consumption remains above resting levels
Excess
Post-exercise
Oxygen
Consumption
Two main functions of pulmonary diffusion
provide blood with oxygen before the blood is transported to muscles and other cells
remove carbon dioxide from the blood returning from the muscles and other cells
What are alveoli
microscopic air sacs found in the lungs, surrounded by capillaries
What occurs at the alveoli
a two-way exchange:
oxygen moves from the alveoli into the blood
carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the alveoli
The pulmonary capillaries surrounding the alveoli contain blood that is
low in oxygen, as it was used by the working muscles
The alveoli contain blood that is
high in oxygen which creates a difference in pressure
What causes the diffusion of the blood from the alveoli to the bloodstream
pressure difference in the pulmonary capillaries (low), and the alveoli (high)
Pulmonary capillaries have a high concentration
of carbon dioxide
alveoli have a low concentration
of carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide diffuses back to the
alveoli to be exhaled with each breath
Oxygen is transported with
haemoglobin by the red blood cells
oxygen and haemoglobin from
oxyhemoglobin HbO2
the amount of oxygen that can be transported depends on the what levels
haemoglobin levels
What is arterial blood
amount of oxygen delivered to muscle/tissue
what is venous blood
amount of oxygen leaving the muscle/tissue
What is Arteriovenous oxygen difference a-vO2 difference
how much oxygen in extracted at the muscle/tissue, the difference in concentration of oxygen in the arterial blood bs venous blood
blood arriving at muscles in the arterioles is higher in oxygen than the capillaries, so it moves into the capillaries and then into the muscle cells by attaching
myoglobin
we use oxygen for aerobic ATP production therefore
a high a-vO2 difference = a high aerobic ATP production
What happens to a-vO2 difference with a increase of intensity
as exercise intensity increases, the a-vO2 diff. will also increase
What is homeostasis
process of keeping the body in a steady state when the external environment has changed
what is thermoregulation
the homeostatic response that controls internal body temperature
role of the cardiovascular system when the body heats up
increased blood flow to the skin - promoting loss of fluid from sweat glands as sweat that evaporates heat away from the body, process of promoting sweating is know are ‘evaporative cooling’
Muscle fatigue due to an elevated body temperature during exercise occurs do to the
1- more blood is sent to the skin to promote sweating
2- blood plasma levels reduce which leads to thicker blood than moves at a slower rate
3- les blood is sent to the working muscles
when severe dehydration occurs, the blood vessels at the skin will vasoconstrict, stopping the sweat response to preserve blood volume, resulting in
dramatic rise to the core body temperate and a failure in the thermoregulatory response, leading to hyperthermia
when is hyperthermia
when the body is gaining more heat than it is able to lose
Three main stages of hyperthermia
1 - Heat cramps: result from water and electrolyte imbalance , may be accompanied by dizziness and exhaustion
2 - heat exhaustion: excessive fluid loss due to prolonged sweating, characterized by profuse sweating, clammy and pale skin, rapid pulse, light headedness
3- Heat stroke: medical emergency, temp is greater than 40, mental confusion or unconsciousness, shock
Musculoskeletal system performance benefits
- improve contraction efficiency
- improve force production
- improve recovery
Cardiorespiratory system performance benefits
- improve the ability to take in, transport and utilize oxygen for aerobic energy production
Legal practices and methods for the musculoskeletal system
resistance training, supplements: protein, creatine, caffeine, bicarbonate , cold water immersion
Legal practices and methods for the cardiorespiratory system
aerobic training, altitude training, hypoxic training
Musculoskeletal System Training benefits
Utilizes resistance training methods.
Benefits include improved strength, power, range of motion, and endurance.
Musculoskeletal System Supplements and what they do
- Protein aids in muscle recovery and growth.
- Creatine enhances maximal intensity performance.
- Caffeine reduces perception of effort and improves performance.
- Sodium Bicarbonate buffers acid to reduce fatigue.
Cold Water Immersion benefits
Reduces DOMS and inflammation for improved recovery
Altitude Training benefits
Improves oxygen intake, transport, and utilization for enhanced aerobic performance.
Hypoxic training benefits
Improves oxygen delivery and aerobic performance.
- Hypoxic tents aid in maintaining fitness during injury recovery.
Aerobic training benefits
improves aerobic power and the ability to take in, transfer and use oxygen to the working muscles for aerobic ATP production
Musculoskeletal system illegal practices and methods
anabolic steroids , growth hormones
Cardiorespiratory system illegal practices and methods
erythropoietin EPO
blood doping
beta blockers
What are anabolic steroids
synthetic hormones derived from and imitating testosterone (male sex hormone) to encourage development of male characteristics and responsible for growth of bone and muscle during puberty
why do athletes take anabolic steroids
enhance muscle size, power, and strength by boosting protein synthesis and blocking muscle breakdown.
side effects of anabolic steroids
short term:
- sleeping difficulties
- mood swings and irritability
Long term:
- liver disease
- paranoia and depression
- uncontrolled aggression
What are growth hormones
Human Growth Hormone naturally occurs in the body and is important for growth and repair of bones and muscles
Other growth hormones are: corticosteroids and insulin-like growth hormones
Why do athletes take growth hormones
promote muscle and bone development, increase strength, muscle size, power
Side effects of growth hormones
diabetes, thyroid disorder, heart disease, reduced immune function
What is EPO
Naturally occurring hormone produced in the kidneys that regulates the body’s production of red blood cells
What are the benefits of EPO
increases red blood cell production for improved oxygen transport
Side effects of EPO
blood clots, increased heart attack risk, increased stroke risk
What is blood doping
method of improving performance by artificially boosting the number of red blood cells in the body therefore increasing haemoglobin levels in the blood
Benefits of blood doping
improved performance because it increases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
How do athletes blood dope
blood transfusion either autologous (own blood) or homologous (donors blood)
synthetic oxygen carriers
side effects of blood doping
increased stroke risk
increase heart attack risk
autoimmune diseases
What are beta blockers
drugs that reduce blood pressure by blocking the effects of the hormone adrenaline
Benefits of beta blockers
lower heart rate and blood pressure, aiding focus and relaxation
Side effects of beta blockers
headaches, dizziness, sleep difficulties
ethical considerations and sociocultural influence of illegal and legal practices
Ethical concerns revolve around unfair advantages and potential harm to athletes.
- Sociocultural factors, such as societal pressures and desires for prestige, influence athletes’ decisions.
What is the role of WADA
Organizations like WADA and ASADA establish anti-doping standards to promote fair play and penalize violators.
