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Y Embryology I > Semester 1 > Flashcards

Semester 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Embryology the study of?

A

The study of the development of a unicellular zygote into a complete multicellular organism.
Prenatal period: before birth

  • 38 weeks from conception to birth (average) “fetal” age
  • Gynecologic timing has been from LMP therefore refers to 40 weeks “gestational” age
  • Date of conception=difficult to time
  • LMP is on average two weeks before ovulation
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2
Q

What is gamatogenesis?

A

Gametogenesis

Process where sex cells—–>form gametes (cells that are able to fertilize)
The 2 processes are called oogenesis and spermatogenesis.

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3
Q

Describe the sequence of oogenesis?

A
  • oogonium
  • profase of 1st meiotic division: primary oocyte
  • completion of 1st meiotic division: secondary oocyte and first polar body
  • completion of the second meiotic division: second polar body and definitive oocyte, third and fourth polar bodies.
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4
Q

Oogenesis?

(Prenatal Maturation of oocytes)

A

Oogonia –> mature oocytes

Begins before birth, completed after puberty.
Menopause - permanent cessation of menstruation which occurs a considerable length of time before the end of the lifespan.

Prenatal maturation of oocytes:

Oogonia proliferates by mitotic divisions, then enlarged to form primary oocytes before birth.

Primary oocyte, surrounded by connective tissue, forms a single layer of flattened follicular epithelial cells called primordial follicle (cuboidal cells) that will become a primary follicle (columnar cells).
The primary oocyte soon becomes surrounded by a covering of amorphous a cellular glycoprotein material called Zona pellucida.

When the follicle has more than one layer it is called a secondary follicle.

Primary oocyte begins 1st meiotic division before birth but the completion of prophase does not occur until adolescence, due to OMI (Oocyte Maturation Inhibitor).

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5
Q

Oogenesis?

(post natal maturation of oocyte)

A

Postnatal maturation of oocytes:

  • During puberty, 1 follicle matures every month and ovulation occurs. (NOTE: Primary oocytes do not form after birth, they only mature.
  • Shortly before ovulation, primary oocytes complete the first meiotic division and divide into a secondary oocyte and the first polar body. (Polar body is a small, non-functional cell degeneration)
  • At o_vulation secondary oocyte begins the 2nd meiotic division_ and stops at metaphase.
  • If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte, it will complete the 2nd meiotic division. During this process and second polar body will form.

If fertilization will not occur, the oocyte will be expelled (menstrual period)

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6
Q

Define the term “spermiogenesis”. Describe the spermatogenesis in sequence. Draw a mature spermium and label parts!

A

Spermiogenesis: formation of spermatozoa from spermatid.

Sequence of spermatogenesis: spermatogonium, primary spermatocyte, secondary spermatocyte, spermatid.

Parts of Mature spermium:

Middle piece

Principal piece

End piece

Further theory:

spermatagonia———-> mature sperm cells/spermatozoa

  • Begins in puberty—–> old age.
  • Spermatagonia (dormant in the seminiferous tube of the testis since the foetal period) vastly increase their number in puberty.
  • Spermatagonia grow and undergo changes——>primary spermatocytes, the largest germ cell in the seminiferous tube (following several mitostic divisions)
  • *1st meiotic division** – 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes (half the size of the primary spermatocyte).
  • *2nd meiotic division** – 4 haploid spermatids (half the size of the secondary spermatocyte).

The 4 haploids——->mature sperm cells i.e. spermatogenesis ( in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules with the help of Sertoli cells.

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7
Q

Function of Sertoli Cells?

A
  • Lining of the seminiferous tubules.
  • Supports and nourishes the germ cell (involved in regulation).
  • Sperm is transported passively to epididymis where they are stored and functionally mature.
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8
Q

At what time period does the 1st complete cleavage of the zygote occur?

A

32 hours after fertilization

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9
Q

At what time period does the 2nd complete cleavage of the zygote occur?

A

60 hours after fertilisation

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10
Q

At what time period does the _3rd _complete cleavage of the zygote occur?

A

72 hrs after fertilization

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11
Q

What is a morula?

A

a solid ball of embryonic cells (before becoming a blastula)

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12
Q

What is blastulation?

A

Blastulation begins when the morula develops a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel, which by the fourth day becomes a hollow sphere of cells called the blastula.

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13
Q

What is the name of this structure and it’s two parts?

A

Blastocyst

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14
Q

How many days after fertilization does the blastocyst implant of the uterine wall?

A

5-8 days

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15
Q

Hormone that prepares the uterus for implantation?

A

progesterone

A three layered structure called a gastrula forms following implantation

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16
Q

What is the first step in gastrulation?

A

Gastrulation begins with the appearance of a small invagination on the surface of the blastula.

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17
Q

Can you name the three primary germ layers?

A

The endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm

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18
Q

The mesoderm layer will form?

A
  • Musculoskeletal system
  • circulatory system
  • excretory system
  • gonads
  • connective tissue throughout the body and portions of digestive and respiratory
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19
Q

The Endoderm will form…

A
  • Pithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts (including the lungs)
  • parts of the liver
  • pancreas
  • thyroid
  • bladder.
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20
Q

What is the notochord?

A

Notochord formation.

  • The prenotochordal cells are invaginated through the primitive pit.
  • They move cranially until they reach the prechordal plate. Here they are intercalated n the hypoblasts.

(NOTE: The prenotochordal cells extends cranially to the buccopharyngeal membrane, and caudally to the primitive pit)

'’As the hypoblasts are replaced by the endoderm cells, the cells of the notochordal plate proliferate, and detach from the endoderm forming a solid cord of cells – the notochord.’‘

The point where the primitive pit forms the intendation in the epiblast, is called the neurenteric canal and is a temporarily connection between the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac.

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21
Q

What kind of an effect does the notochord have on the overlying ectoderm?

A

It has an inductive effect causing it to bend inward and form a groove along the dorsal surface of the embryo

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22
Q

What forms a tube which later becomes the brain and spinal chord?

A

The dorsal ectoderm folds on either side of the groove; these neural folds grow upwardvand finally fuse, forming a closed tube.

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23
Q

Name the stages of development of the ovarian follicle in sequence! Make a drawing of the Graafian follicle, and label the major parts!

A
  • Primordial, primary, secondary (growing), tertiary or vesicular follicle.
  • Theca externa
  • Theca interna
  • Follicular antrum with fluid
  • Cumulus oophorus
  • Corona radiata
  • Membrana granulosa
  • Zona pellucida
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24
Q

** Which cells of spermatogenesis are isolated from the blood-born antigens by the blood-testis barrier?**

A
  • late primary spermatocytes
  • Secondary spermatocytes
  • Sperm cells (spermatozoa)
  • Spermatids
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25
Q

What is meant by the “ovarian cycle”?

A

Development of follicles, ovulation, formation and subsequent regression of corpus luteum.

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26
Q

Define the approximate date of ovulation and describe the hormonal background!

A

**Approximately ** midcycle (14 days) under the influence of FSH and LH, triggered by a surge of LH production.

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27
Q

What is the fate of matured ovarian follicle?

A
  • Release of the oocyte by rupture of the follicle: ovulation
  • The collapsed wall of the follicle surrounds a central clot of retained blood and follicular fluid. This is the corpus hemorrhagicum. From the granulosa cells the granulosa luteal, and from the theca interna cells the theca luteal cells develop respectively.
  • In case of pregnancy, the corpus luteum further develops and forms the persisting corpus luteum, otherwise it degenerates and becomes the corpus albicans.
  • Matured, but undischarged follicles undergo degeneration resulting in atretic follicles.
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28
Q

From which structure does the corpus luteum develop, and what does it secrete ?

A

From corpus hemorrhagicum, by proliferation of theca interna, and granulosa sells.

Secretes: Progesteron and oestrogen

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29
Q

** Describe the processes that make the spermatozoa capable of fertilising the oocyte!**

A
  • Epididymal maturation: changes in metabolism, acquiring the capability for movement.
  • Capacitation: a glycoprotein coat and seminal plasma proteins are removed from the plasma membrane that overlies the acrosomal region of the spermatozoa.
  • Acrosomal reaction: Release of enzymes from the acrosome: a) hyaluronidase; b) proteolitic enzymes.
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30
Q

** Name the phases of fertilisation and describe the reactions of the fertilised oocyte.**

A
  1. Penetration of the corona radiata
  2. Penetration of zona pellucida
  3. Fusion of oocyte - sperm cell membranes
  4. The spermatozoon (except for the cell membrane) enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte.
  5. Reactions of the egg: cortical and zonal reaction; resumption of the second meiotic division; metabolic activation of the egg.
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31
Q

** What is meant by cleavage and blastocyst formation?**

A

Cleavage: Formation of morula and then the blastocyst by mitotic divisions of fertilized ovum.

Blastocyst formation: fluid begins to penetrate into the intercellular spaces of the inner cell mass. The spaces become confluent and a single cavity, the blastocele is formed: the blastocyst.

32
Q

** How does the endometrium change during the menstrual cycle?**

A

Stages of the menstrual cycle:

Menstrual phase: rupture of blood vessels and detachment of the functional layer of the endometrium.

Regeneration phase: regeneration of the functional layer

Proliferative phase (follicular or estrogenic stage): gradual growth of the endometrium.

Secretory (luteal ) phase: development of the compact and spongy layers in the functional layer. Secretory activity of glands, decidual reaction of stroma cells, formation of coiled arteries within the endometrium, edema in the stroma.

Regression: temporary contraction of coiled arteries resulting in ischaemia of the endometrium. Consecutive dilatation of vessels followed by hyperemia of the endometrium.

33
Q

Make a schematic drawing of the early blastocyst and label its major parts!

A

Parts:

Blastocyst cavity

Outer cell mass or trophoblast

Inner cell mass or embryoblast

34
Q

Where is the preferred site of implantation? List few abnormal implantation sites!

A

Normal: Along the posterior. and anterior. wall of the body of the uterus, between the openings of the glands.

  **Abnormal:** close to the internal os of the uterus; outside the uterus (extrauterine or ectopic pregnancy): any place of the abdominal cavity, ovary, uterine tube.
35
Q

** What is the difference between syncytiotro-phoblast and cytotrophoblast?**

A

Cytotrophoblast: mononucleated cells that form the inner layer of trophoblast (Langhans cell layer).

  **Syncytiotrophoblast:** outer multinucleated zone of trophoblast without distinct cell boundaries.
36
Q

What is the role of syncytiotrophoblast during implantation?

A

Secretion of proteolytic enzymes which erode the endometrial epithelium and the stroma of the endometrium, so that the blastula can penetrate, and get implanted in the endometrium.

37
Q

** What is the difference between the extraembryonic and intraembryonic mesoderm? Where do they originate from?**

A

Extraembryonic mesoderm: derives from the trophoblast and form a fine, loose connective tissue, which is located outside the embryo.

  Intraembryonic mesoderm: the third germ layer between the epiblast and hypoblast layers. Origin: epiblast.
38
Q

List the components of the extraembryonic mesoderm.

A

Somatopleuric mesoderm

  Splanchnopleuric mesoderm

  Connecting stalk

  Chorionic mesoderm
39
Q

What is the connecting stalk and how does it develop further?

A

Part of the extraembryonic mesoderm containing the allantois, vitelline duct, as well as the umbilical and vitelline vessels.

  Later the amnion envelops the connecting stalk and the yolk sac stalk with their vessels, forming the primitive umbilical cord.
40
Q

Make a schematic drawing illustrating the dorsal view of a 16-day old embryo! Label parts!

A

Prochordal plate

Notochordal process

Primitive streak

Primitive node

Future cloacal membrane

41
Q

Make a schematic drawing illustrating the transverse section of the trilaminar germ disc at the cephalic part of an 18-day-old embryo! Label parts!

A
42
Q

What is the notochord and the primitive pit? Indicate its place in a schematic drawing showing the midsagittal section of the 16-day-old embryo!

A

At the cephalic end of the primitive streak the primitive node develops. The primitive pit develops from the primitive node by cell-invagination. These cells migrate straightforward towards the cephalic end, and form a tube - like process: the notochordal or head process. The canal of the head process is the cranial extension of the primitive pit. The dorsal wall of the notochordal process proliferates and forms the definitive notochord.

amnionic cavity

ectoderm (epiblast)

primitive pit

prochordal plate

notochordal process

primitive streak

yolk sac

43
Q

** What is the neural plate? What is meant by neural induction?**

A

Thickening of the ectoderm, primordium of the nervous system. The notochord has an inductive influence on the ectoderm, resulting in the formation of the neural plate.

44
Q

** What is the “placode” and what are its derivatives?**

A

Placode: thickenings of the surface ectoderm at the head region of the embryo.

  a) Hypophyseal placode (I): Rathke's pouch. (adenohypophysis)
  b) Nasal placode (2): olfactory epithelium.
  c) Lens placode (2): lens of eye
  d) Trigeminal placode (2): semilunar ggl.
  e) Acoustic placode (2): sensory epithelium of vestibular and cochlear receptors, ganglions.
  f) Epibranchial placode (2): sensory epithelium of taste buds.
  g) Branchial: placode (2): sensory ganglia of VIIth, IXth, Xth cranial nerves.
45
Q

** What are the derivatives of the paraxial, intermediate and the lateral plate of mesoderm?**

A

Paraxial mesoderm: breaks up into blocks of somites, and somitomers at the cephalic region. The somites differentiate into sclerotom, dermatome, myotome.

  Intermediate: in the cervical and upper thoracic region it gives rise to the nephrotomes. Caudally the nephrogenic cord develops from it.

  Lateral plate: somatic or parietal mesoderm layer, splanchnic or visceral mesoderm layer, intraembryonic celomic cavity.
46
Q

What is meant by the a) cephalo-caudal and b) lateral foldings of the embryo?

A

Folding of a flat trilaminar embryonic disc into a somewhat cylindrical embryo.

  a) Cephalo-caudal fold: Cranially, the developing forebrain grows beyond the buccopharyngeal membrane and overhangs the developing heart. Caudally the tail region projects over the cloacal membrane.
  b) Lateral/transverse folds: Each lateral body wall folds towards the median plane in a ventral direction.
47
Q

List and characterize the different developmental stages of the placental villi!

A

a) Primary villi : cyto- and syncytiotrophoblast cells
b) Secondary villi: cyto- and syncytiotrophoblast cells + extraembryonic mesoderm in the centre of villi
c) Early tertiary villi: blood vessels in the mesoderm layer + the layers of the secondary villi.
d) Late tertiary villi: the cytotrophoblast partially disappears, and the syncytium and the endothelial wall of the blood vessels may be in direct contact. Villi form richly arborizing tree-like structure.

48
Q

List the separating layers between fetal and maternal blood in the early and the matured placenta!

A

Early: syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, trophoblast basement membrane, connective tissue, capillary basement membrane, endothelium

  Late: syncytiotrophoblast, trophoblast basement membrane, capillary basement membrane, and endothelium. Some connective tissue may be present between the two basement membranes.
49
Q

** Define the term of decidua! Name its parts in relation to the implanted embryo!**

A

Decidua: Functional layer of the gravid endometrium.

  Decidua basalis: between the chorion frondosum and myometrium. Primordium of placenta materna.

  Decidua capsularis: over the abembryonic pole.

  Decidua parietalis: rest of the decidua, except the basalis and capsularis.
50
Q

Describe the parts of the full term placenta!

A

Fetal portion: chorionic plate, chorion villi.

Maternal portion: decidua basalis.

51
Q

Name the layers of the chorionic plate!

A
  1. Amnion
  2. Extra-embryonic mesoblast
  3. Cytotrophoblast
  4. Syncytiotrophoblast
52
Q

what does this image represent?

A
  • *Basal plate:**
    5. Zona compacta
    6. Zona spongiosa
    7. Decidua basalis
    8. Myometrium

Placental tissue structure

Maternal and fetal tissues form two units that are closely bound together at the placental level.

The fetal part of the placenta is made up of the chorionic plate with its placental villi, the cytotrophoblast layer and the intervillous spaces. The chorionic plate (great part of the placenta on the fetal side) consists of the amnion, the extra-embryonic mesenchyma, the cytotrophoblast and the syncytiotrophoblast.

The basal plate: the peripheral region of the placenta on the maternal side that is in contact with the uterine wall, is made up of two tissues: embryonic tissue (cytotrophoblast, syncytiotrophoblast), on the one side, and of maternal tissue (decidua basalis) on the other.

53
Q

Lets review early development……

A

chrononology of the appearance of human embryonic structures:
Trophoblast 5 days
Amnion 7 days
Umbilicus 9 days
Extraembryonic coelom 12 days
Allantois 16 days

54
Q

What is number one? ( ofthe Utero-placenta circulatroy system)

A
  1. Umbilical arteries
55
Q

Number two?

A

Umbilical vein

56
Q

Number 3?

A

Fetal capillaries

57
Q

What is number 1? ( maternal circulatory system)

A

A Spiral arteries

58
Q

what are items labelled 2,3, and A? (Maternal Circulatory system)

A
  1. A Spiral arteries
  2. Uterine veins
  3. Intervillous spaces

A. Basal plate

59
Q

Can you label items of the Villi in the 1st trimester?

A

In the first trimester it consists of the syncytiotrophoblast, the cytotrophoblast (Langhans’ cells), the villus mesenchyma (in which numerous ovoid Hofbauer cellsthat exhibit macrophage properties are found) and the fetal capillary walls.

  1. Intervillous space
  2. Syncytiotrophoblast
  3. Cytotrophoblast
  4. Villus mesenchyma
  5. Fetal capillaries
  6. Hofbauer macrophages
60
Q

label the items in villi diagram ( 2nd trimester)?

A
  1. Intervillous space
  2. Syncytiotrophoblast
  3. Cytotrophoblast
  4. Villus mesenchyma
  5. Fetal capillaries
  6. Hofbauer macrophages

During the 4th month the cytotrophoblast disappears from the villus wall (interactive diagram) and the thickness of the barrier decreases while the surface area increases (roughly 12 m2towards the end of the pregnancy). In the 5th month the fetal vessels have multiplied their branches and gotten closer to the villus surface.

61
Q

Placenta barrier in a mature villus

A

During the 6th month the nuclei of the syncytiotrophoblast group together in the so-called proliferation knots. The other zones of the syncythiothrophoblast lack nuclei and are adjacent to the capillaries (exchange zones).

  1. Intervillous space (with maternal blood)
  2. Placental barrier of a terminal villus
  3. Fetal capillaries
  4. Merged basal membranes of the fetal capillary and of the syncythiothrophoblast Endothelial cells
  5. Rare cytotrophoblast cells
  6. Basal membrane of the capillaries
  7. Basal membrane of the trophoblast portion
  8. Syncytiotrophoblast with proliferation knots (nuclei rich region)
62
Q

Outline the events that occur in the female genital tract?

A
63
Q

Review Human development timeline!

A
64
Q

What is conception or fertilisation?

A

the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism of the same species

FERTILIZATION begins when a sperm penetrates an oocyte, the entire process takes cca 24 hours

  • sperm survival: up to 5 days in FERTILE MUCUS
  • only 1% (3 million) enter the uterine cavity, even less will reach the tubes takes about ten hours to reach the fallopian tube

EJACULATE (3.5 ml)

10% sperms (200-600 M/ml)

50% seminal fluid (coagulation)

30% prostatic secrete (fructose)

10% Cowper’s (rinsing, lubrication)

1 oocyte versus 300 million sperm cells

65
Q

**what are the stages of fertilisation? **

A

Capacitation (takes about 7 hours, the acrosome is denuded – conditioning)

Penetration of the Corona radiata

Acrosomal reaction (lytic enzymes are secreted in reponse to contacting the corona radiata)

Binding – specific binding between the membranes

Penetration of zona pellucida and the vitelline membrane (takes about twenty minutes)

-enzyme reaction triggered

Zona reaction (retraction of the vitelline membrane

from the zona pellucida)

Within 11 hours a polar body is formed

Preembryo formation

  • fusion of the nuclei:
  • creation of the zygote
66
Q

Can you describe cleavage (segmentation)?

A

1.5 - 3 days post-ovulation

mitotic divisions

0.1 - 0.2 mm

ZYGOTE - begins to cleave, with each division producing

twice as many cells (blastomeres) approximately every

twenty hours

MORULA - sixteen cells, it leaves the fallopian tube

and enters the uterine cavity on day 3-4.

67
Q

What is this?

A

A Morula, before and after compacting

68
Q

Describe Adhesion Molecules

A

The blastomeres are bound to each other by outer and inner layers of structures.

The outer layer contains Na ion pumps, whereas internally liquid will accumulate and aids the cavity (blastocoel) formation).

„Pumping” blastocyst

69
Q

When does Cavitation withing the Morula occur?

A

4 days post-ovulation

early blastocyst formation

0.1 - 0.2 mm

MORULA:

  • reaches the uterine cavity
  • cell division continues

BLASTOCYST

-cavity (blastocoel) formation
-cells flatten and compact
-
-zona pellucida remains the same size

  • two cell types are forming:
  • embryoblast (inner cell mass)
  • trophoblast (outer layer)
70
Q

When does the blastocyst hatch and prepare for implantation?

A

5 - 6 days post-ovulation

implantation begins,

HCG levels rise

0.1 - 0.2 mm

BLASTOCYST

  • enters the uterus
  • “hatches” from the zona pellucida
  • trophoblasts secrete an enzyme which

erodes the endometrium

-(hCG) release

UTERUS

  • glands enlarge
  • endometrium is swollen
  • new capillaries
71
Q

** List the functions of placenta !**

A

Transport and exchange of gases, nutrients, waste products,

  Transport of antibodies to fetus,

  Endocrine function,

  Mechanical protection,

  Barrier for some germs and drugs.
72
Q

List the hormones that are produced by the placenta!

A

Progesteron, estrogenic hormones, human chorionic gonadotropins (hCG),human chorionic somatotropin (hCS), human chorionic thyreotropin (hCT), relaxin, human chorionic adreno-corticotropin (hCACTH).

73
Q

What is the difference in the composition of the primitive and matured umbilical cord?

A

Contents of primitive cord: the connecting stalk that contains allantois, umbilical vessels consisting of two arteries and two veins, yolk sac stalk accompanied by the vitelline vessels.

Contents of the matured cord: two umbilical arteries, one umbilical vein, Wharton’s jelly.

74
Q

What are the stages in Human implantation?

A
75
Q

Diagrams NB

A
76
Q

Somite Compartments and their derivatives?

A

An early set of subdivisions results in a three part brain, consisting of a forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon) and a hind brain (rhombencephalon)

later the prosenephalon becomes subdivided into a telencephalon and diencephalon and the rhombencephalon is subdivided into a metencephalon and myelencephalon.

77
Q

Can you describe development of the placenta and fetal membranes?

A

Y Embryology I (20 decks)

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