Self and Identity

Question 1

What are the three main questions for self and identity?

Answer 1

1/ Do infants and children have a sense of self?
2/ Do they understand the ‘mental lives’ of others?
3/ How do children develop a sense of identity?

Question 2

What is a sense of self?

Answer 2

As adults, we are aware of our own existence.

Question 3

Where does the ‘self’ come from?

Answer 3

It is not well understood. Self-awareness is thought to begin with the differentiation of the body from the external world, developing bodily awareness.

Question 4

Evidence that newborns have a sense of self or bodily awareness?

Answer 4

Newborns will display a stronger reflex response to an external touch (to their cheek) than to their own touch.

Question 5

What was found in the study on bodily awareness, Role of intermodal perception (Rochat & Hespos, 1997)?

Answer 5

Co-occurrence of different actions and sensations.
E.g., hearing oneself crying – link between vocalization and sounds.
Feeling own touch – link between own action and sensation.

Question 6

What is the significance of timing in relation to bodily awareness?

Answer 6

Timing as a cue – some events caused by own bodily actions, other events in world not caused by own body.

Question 7

When do we develop self recognition?

Answer 7

During the second year, toddlers become more aware of their own physical self.

Question 8

What is the mirror test when researching self recognition?

Answer 8

‘Mirror test’ – a paint mark is secretly placed on child’s face. Then view themselves in mirror.

Question 9

What results and conclusion were found on mirror tests researching self recognition?

Answer 9

Under 20 months – touch the mirror
Over 20 months – rubbed own skin.

Older infants understand that they are seeing an image of their own appearance.

Question 10

In relation to self recognition, what will toddlers do at age 2?

Answer 10

Aged 2, toddlers will point to themselves in photos.

Developing awareness of body as object in world with its own features and dimensions

Question 11

In relation to self recognition, what will 18 months and older do?

Answer 11

Aged 18 months and older, toddlers understand that body can act as obstacle in physical world. Eg, scale errors.

Question 12

What are scale errors in relations to self recognition?

Answer 12

Scale errors – limited understanding of bodily dimensions, e.g., try to sit on doll house chair.

Question 13

How do children develop an understanding of the ‘mental lives’ of other people?

Answer 13

Across the first few years of life, children develop an appreciation that other people’s behaviour is governed by intentions so it is a matter of Purposeful behaviour vs. accidental actions
In short, observable behaviour is governed by unobservable mental states.

Question 14

In relation to early understanding, what happens at 6 months?

Answer 14

At 6 months, expect people to make conversation towards other people, not inanimate objects.

Question 15

At the end of the first year, what do babies view people as?

Answer 15

Intentional beings.

Question 16

In relation to early understanding, what develops from the end of the second year?

Answer 16

Understanding of mental states, such as emotions and desires, develops from the end of the second year.
They also understand that people have different emotions and desires, e.g., food preferences.

Question 17

What is the theory of mind?

Answer 17

Theory of mind - interpreting behaviour in terms of mental states.

Question 18

At three years of age, children’s thinking about others is limited to what?

Answer 18

Emotions and desires

Easily inferred mental states… eg facial expression in response to food.

Question 19

What do 3 year olds use to understand behaviour and what do they always think behaviour is consistent with?

Answer 19

They use a simple ‘desire theory of mind’ and think behaviour is always consistent with desires.

Question 20

Between 3 and 4, what other mental states to children start to understand?

Answer 20

Mental states such as thoughts and beliefs.

Question 21

At 4 years and onwards, what to children use to interpret behaviour?

Answer 21

Around 4 years onwards, use a ‘belief-desire theory of mind’ to interpret behaviour.

Eg when told“A child wanted to open his Christmas presents early. But he thought that this would get him into trouble with his parents”
a 4-year-old understands that the child in the story will end up not opening his presents early.

Question 22

What is the false belief test?

Answer 22

Test whether a child can understand that another person can have a false belief about the world:

Question 23

What is considered a false belief to the child?

Answer 23

Something that is different to their own belief or a belief that doesn’t correspond to reality.

Question 24

What is the Sally-Anne test and who did it?

Answer 24

Baron-Cohen et al, 1985
Children presented with puppet story of two dolls.
One puppet ends up believing something which is not true.
Children have to predict how the puppet will behave.

Question 25

Example of a Sally Anne story?

Answer 25

Sally puts marble in her basket. 
Sally leaves the room.
Anne moves marble to her box.
Sally returns to get her marble.
	Where does Sally look for her marble?

Question 26

In the Sally Anne test what will 4 year olds and older say?

Answer 26

Children aged 4 years and older will say that Sally will search in her own basket.

Question 27

In the Sally Anne test, younger children will?

Answer 27

Younger children do not understand Sally’s false belief.

Question 28

What is an issue with the sally anne test?

Answer 28

is experimental task too complex for younger children?

Question 29

Who devised a differenty test to the sally anne test to research understanding and what was it called?

Answer 29

Renee Baillargeon – Use violation-of-expectation procedure instead.

Question 30

What did Renee Baillargeon’s test involve?

Answer 30

15-month-olds looked longer when Sally searched in the correct location (Anne’s box).

Question 31

What three things contribute to the development of theory of mind?

Answer 31

1/ Language skills
2/ Secure attachment
3/ Make believe play

Question 32

How do language skills contribute to the development of theory of mind?

Answer 32

language is a powerful tool for expressing other’s mental states. In cultures without mental state terms (e.g., ‘think’ or ‘believe’), children struggle with false belief tasks.

Question 33

How does secure attachment contribute to the development of theory of mind?

Answer 33

mothers of securely attached children talk more about mental states. Supports learning about mental states.

Question 34

How does make believe play contribute to the development of theory of mind?

Answer 34

Acting out imaginary roles. Understand beliefs affect behaviour, even when different to reality.

Question 35

Is there a genetic component to the theory of mind?

Answer 35

Autism is a severe behavioural disorder with one of the symptoms being ‘mindblindness’ which is the difficulty attributing mental states to themselves or other people. Caused by abnormal brain functioning… Leads some researchers to argue that theory of mind is innate.

Question 36

Why is the Theory of Mind important? (4)

Answer 36

1/Good predictor of social skills.
2/Leads children to understand people’s differing perspectives – resolve social conflict.
3/Use own behaviour to disguise real thoughts and feelings – manipulate the impression that other people have of us!
4/In contrast, children with autism display serious difficulties with normal social functioning.

Question 37

What is self-concept?

Answer 37

How we describe and think about ourselves.

Question 38

What can we do once we have developed a sense of self awareness?

Answer 38

One we have developed a sense of self awareness, we start to think about who we are as a person - self concept.

Question 39

What can out self-concept include?

Answer 39

Can include:
Attributes – “I have brown eyes”
Skills and abilities – “I’m good at maths”
Attitudes – “I like watching tv”
Values – “I try to be a good person”

Question 40

When do we first see self-concept develop and what is it limited to?

Answer 40

Between ages of 3 to 5 years, self-descriptions generally limited to observable characteristics such as name, age or physical appearance.

Question 41

In relation to developing self-concept, what happens at 3.5 years of age?

Answer 41

By 3.5 years of age, begin to incorporate emotions and attitudes, e.g., “I’m happy when ….”

Question 42

In relation to developing self concept, what happens at 5 years of age?

Answer 42

At 5 years of age, self description correlates with maternal report of child’s personality.

Question 43

In relation to developing self concept, what happens between 8-11 years?

Answer 43

Between ages of 8 – 11 years, self-descriptions move from specific behaviours to general skills and abilities and personality traits.

Question 44

Between 8-11 years, what do children think about their self concept?

Answer 44

They can positively and negatively evaluate their personalities which is linked to comparison with peers.

Question 45

In relation to developing self concept, what happens during adolescence?

Answer 45

Their descriptions of their self concept and personality traits become more complex and vary with social context, eg, friends vs family.

Question 46

What happens when adolescents make the transition into adulthood?

Answer 46

When adolescents make the transition to adulthood, they begin to construct an identity (Erikson, 1950).

Question 47

In adulthood, your sense of identity is the basis for what?

Answer 47

Your sense of identity is the basis for the directions you will pursue with your life.

Question 48

What may teenagers and young adults to do understand their identities?

Answer 48

In order to understand their identity, teenagers and young adults may explore different possibilities for their lives.
eg social groups, hobbies, academic courses, relationships, cultures etc.

Question 49

What are the three conclusions for self and identity?

Answer 49

1/ Infants’ self-awareness emerages from distinguishing own body from the physical word. Eventually they will recognise their own image ‘thats me’.
2/ Infants are aware of other people’s mental states. Preschoolers have a ‘theory of mind’ for interpreting other people’s behaviour.
3/ Children’s self-concept is initially about observable properties. Becomes more psychological with age.