Self and Identity

Question 1

Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 1

Mead (1934) - the self derived from the way others see us - ‘the looking-glass self’

Question 2

Do people see themselves as others see them?

Answer 2

No. People see themselves as they think others see them (Schrauger & Schoeneman, 1979)

Question 3

On which dimensions do people have the clearest self-schemas (which dimensions are they ‘schematic’ on?

Answer 3

People are self-schematic on dimensions which are important to them, on which they think they are extreme and on which they believe the opposite does no hold (Markus, 1977)

Question 4

Self-discrepancy theory

Answer 4

Higgins (1987) - three types of self-schemas - actual, ideal, and ‘ought’. We match our behavior to an ideal or ought standard through self-regulation. Higgins et al. (1986) showed that priming high-discrepancy participants for ideal self standards increased feelings of dejection, whereas priming them for ought standards increased agitation.

Question 5

Regulatory focus theory

Answer 5

Higgins (1997, 1998) - we have to self-regulatory systems - promotion and prevention, which are meant to pursue different goals. The promotion system is concerned with the attainment of goals and aspirations, adopting ‘approach strategic means’. The prevention system deals with the fulfillment of duties and obligations - oughts, using ‘avoidance strategic means’.

Question 6

Promotion-focused individuals are especially likely to…

Answer 6

• recall information related to the pursuit of success by others (Higgins & Tykocinsky, 1992)
• are most inspired by positive role models who emphasize strategies for achieving success (Lockwood, Jordan, and Kunda, 2002)
• show elevated motivation and persistence on tasks that are framed in terms of gains (Shah, Higgins, & Friedman, 1998)

Question 7

Prevention-focused individuals are especially likely to…

Answer 7

• recall information relating to the avoidance of failures by others
• are most inspired by negative role models who highlight strategies for avoiding failure
• exhibit persistence and motivation in tasks which are framed in terms of losses and non-losses

Question 8

Self-perception theory

Answer 8

Bem (1967, 1972) - we gain knowledge of ourselves by making self-attributions (e.g. we infer our attitudes from our behaviors).

Question 9

The overjustification effect

Answer 9

In the absence of any obvious external determinants of behavior, people assume they chose to behave that way freely, because they enjoy it (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Question 10

Why is rewarding sometimes a bad way to motivate?

Answer 10

The provision of external rewards for previously internally motivated tasks ca result in lowered motivation, enjoyment and performance (e.g. Condry, 1977).

Question 11

Social comparison theory

Answer 11

Festinger (1954): comparing our behaviors with those of others in order to establish the correct and socially appropriate attitudes and behaviors.

Question 12

Self-evaluation maintenance model

Answer 12

Tesser (1988) - people who are constrained to making esteem-damaging upward comparisons can either underplay or deny similarity with the target, or they can withdraw from the relationship with the target.

Question 13

Who is more satisfied, the bronze medalist, or the silver medalist?

Answer 13

The bronze medalists (Medvec, Madley, & Gilovich, 1995).

Question 14

Self-categorization theory

Answer 14

Turner et al. (1987) - an extension of social identity theory - how the process of categorizing oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaniors.

Question 15

BIRGing

Answer 15

Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini et al., 1976) - name-dropping to link yourself with desirable people or groups and thus improve others’ impressions of you, and your own self-esteem.

Question 16

The four types of identity as proposed by Brewer (2001).

Answer 16

Person-based social identity, relational social identity, group-based social identity, collective identity.

Question 17

Evidence for multiple social selves:

Answer 17

• different contextual factors lead people to describe themselves quite differently
• experiments focusing on group membership produce very different results from those focusing on individuality or interpersonal relations
• the minimal group paradigm (Tajfel, 1970; Diehl, 1990)

Question 18

The metacontrast principle of social identity salience.

Answer 18

The prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of ‘differences to ingroup positions’ to ‘differences to outgroup positions’.

Question 19

The three self-motives:

Answer 19

self assessment - to seek out new information in order to find out what sort of person we really are
self-verification - seeking out information that confirms what we already know about ourselves
self-enhancement - developing and promoting a favorable self-image

Question 20

Self-affirmation theory

Answer 20

(Steele, 1988; Sherman & Cohen, 2006) the theory that people reduce the threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their confidence in some other area.

Question 21

Order the three self-motives by influence/importance.

Answer 21

Seikides (1993):

1. self-enhancement.
2. self-verification - a distant second
3. self-assessment - least important

Question 22

The self-enhancing triad:

Answer 22

overestimation of one’s good qualities, overestimation of one’s control over events, and unrealistic optimism (Sedikides & Gregg, 2007)

Question 23

Ways of coping with self-conceptual threats and their health implications.

Answer 23

Escape - removing oneself physically from the situation.
Denial - substance abuse & other risky behavior often resulting in additional health problems.
Downplaying the threat - re-evaluating aspects of the self that have been threatened or reaffirming other positive aspects of the self (Steele, 1988).
Self-expression - reduces emotional heat, headaches, muscle tension and pounding heart, improves immune system functioning (Pennebaker, 1997)
Attack the threat - discredit the basis of the threat, denying one’s responsibility, self-handicapping, seeking professional help.

Question 24

Is self-esteem a predictor of aggression?

Answer 24

No. Not self esteem per se, but narcissism is a predictor of aggression in individuals (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) and in narcissistic groups - of collective violence (Golec de Zavala et al., in press)

Question 25

The five motives of strategic self-presentation.

Answer 25

1. self-promotion - persuading others that you are competent.
2. ingratiation - getting others to like you.
3. intimidation - getting others to think you’re dangerous.
4. exemplification - getting others to regard you as a morally respectable individual
5. supplication - getting others to take pity on you

Question 26

Characteristics of high self-esteem individuals:

Answer 26

Persistent and resilient in the face of failure.
Emotionally and affectively stable.
Less flexible and malleable
Less easily persuaded and influenced.
React positively to a happy and successful life.

Question 27

Characteristics of low self-esteem individuals:

Answer 27

Vulnerable to impact of everyday events.
Wide swings in mood and affect.
Flexible and malleable.
Easily persuaded and influenced.
React negatively to a happy and successful life.