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Geography Paper 1 - Physical Geography > Section C - Carbon Cycle > Flashcards

Section C - Carbon Cycle Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the carbon cycle and what are its four main stores?

A

The carbon cycle is the process given to the exchange of carbon between its four main reservoirs – atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere

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2
Q

What are the three main types of carbon in the carbon cycle?

A
  • Inorganic – Found in rocks as bicarbonates and carbonate (the Earth’s largest carbon store)
  • Organic – Found in plant material
  • Gaseous – Found as CO2, methane and carbon monoxide
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3
Q

What are the four key processes of the carbon cycle?

A
  • Photosynthesis – Removing CO2 from the atmosphere to promote plant growth
  • Respiration – Releasing CO2 into the atmosphere as animals consume plant growth and breathe
  • Decomposition – Breaking down organic matter and releasing CO2 into soils
  • Combustion – of biomass and fossil fuels – releasing CO2 into the atmosphere
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4
Q

What are fluxes in the carbon cycle and give two examples?

A

Fluxes is the name given to carbon being exchanged between stores - EG Photosynthesis and decomposition of organic matter

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5
Q

What is carbon sequestration?

A

The removal and storage of carbon from the atmosphere – usually occurs in oceans, forests, and soil through photosynthesis

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6
Q

What is thermohaline circulation?

A

An ocean current that produces both vertical and horizontal circulations of warm and cold water around the world’s oceans

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7
Q

What is thermohaline circulation?

A

An ocean current that produces both vertical and horizontal circulations of warm and cold water around the world’s oceans

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8
Q

What is the biological carbon pump and what does it involve?

A
  • The exchange of CO2 at the ocean’s surface
  • Involves phytoplankton sequestering CO2 through photosynthesis
  • When they die, phytoplankton sink to the ocean floor and stay there, transferring carbon into the ocean store
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9
Q

What % of a tree’s biomass stores carbon?

A

95% - very important to the carbon cycle

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10
Q

The role of mangrove forests in the carbon cycle (how much carbon it sequesters, what happens if they are cut down)

A
  • Mangrove forests sequester 1.5 metric tonnes of carbon per year
  • If mangrove forests are drained or deforested by human activity, carbon is released back into the atmosphere
  • If just 2% of the world’s mangrove forests are lost, the rate of carbon sequestration will be 50 x the normal sequestration rate
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11
Q

What role do tundra soils play in the carbon cycle?

A

Much of the soil in tundra regions is permanently frozen and contains ancient carbon as roots and decayed organic matter are frozen, locking up the carbon

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12
Q

What role do tropical rainforests play in the carbon cycle?

A
  • Massive carbon sinks but extremely fragile
  • Carbon is stored in trees, plants, and dead wood and is recycled as these stores decay
  • Tropical forests absorb more atmospheric CO2 than any other biome - account for 30% of the planet’s net primary production
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13
Q

What does the natural greenhouse affect do?

A

The natural greenhouse affect keeps air in the Earth, making the Earth 16 degrees hotter than it otherwise would have been and allowing for life on the planet

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14
Q

What % of GHGs does CO2 account for?

A

89%

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15
Q

How much have concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere increased since 1750?

A

Concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere have increased by 25% since 1750

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16
Q

What % of CO2 emissions have come from burning fossil fuels since the 1980s and what has this contributed to?

A

Since the 1980s, 75% of CO2 emissions have come from burning fossil fuels – this has contributed to the enhanced greenhouse effect

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17
Q

Impacts of burning fossil fuels - Balance

A
  • Human activity and burning FFs have increased carbon inputs from fossil fuels without a corresponding increase in carbon sinks leading to the carbon cycle being more out of balance
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18
Q

Impacts of burning fossil fuels - Implications for climate (3)

A
  • Across Europe, annual average land temps are projected to increase
  • Annual average precipitation rates are also expected to increase in Northern Europe and decrease in Southern Europe
  • Extreme weather events are also likely to increase in frequency and severity
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19
Q

Impacts of burning fossil fuels - Arctic amplification

A
  • Arctic is warming twice as fast as the global average – known as arctic amplification – this releases CO2 into the atmosphere contributing to higher temps and more melting and more CO2 and so on
  • Climate change and burning FFs has resulted in less snow in the winter months and more melting in the summer months, threatening plant and animal life
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20
Q

Impacts of burning fossil fuels - Implications for the water cycle

A
  • In the summer months, much of Europe’s water comes from melting ice in the Alps but by 2100 climate scientists predict that the Eastern-Alps will be completely ice-free along with a majority of the Western-Alps, affecting the water cycle like this:
  • Precipitation in the form of snow could diminish and rainfall patterns could change
  • River discharge patterns may change with more floods in winter and more droughts in summer
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21
Q

Cities contain what % of the world’s people, consume what % of the world’s energy, and produce what % of the world’s GHGs?

A
  • More than 50% of the world’s people live in cities
  • Cities consume 75% of the world’s energy
  • Cities produce 80% of its GHGs
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22
Q

How much carbon does London produce per year?

A

London generates 1.7 million tonnes of carbon per year

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23
Q

What happened in Peru from 2006-2015 and what does this represent?

A
  • Solar panel electricity was made available to 500,000 people in remote villages in Peru from 2006-15
  • This is a sustainable energy source and is helping bring sustainable development to these villages
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24
Q

What are primary and secondary energy sources?

A
  • Energy sources that are consumed in their raw form EG fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewable sources
  • Primary sources can be used to generate electricity which is a secondary energy source
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25
Q

What are domestic and overseas energy sources? (energy security)

A
  • Declining domestic North Sea oil and gas reserves have made the UK more reliant on imported energy
  • Because the UK now imports more energy than it exports, the country has an energy deficit and is energy insecure
  • By contrast countries with surplus energy EG Russia are energy secure
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26
Q

What are renewable and non-renewable sources?

A
  • Non-renewable sources EG coal, oil or gas will eventually be used up and are finite
  • Renewable EG wind, solar and wave power are continues flows of nature which can be constantly reused
  • Recyclable EG nuclear power
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27
Q

What was the UK’s energy mix in 1980? (oil, coal, gas, renewables, nuclear)

A
  • Oil 38%
  • Coal 34%
  • Gas 19%
  • Renewables <2%
  • Nuclear 9%
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28
Q

What was the UK’s energy mix in 2022?

A

Oil - <1%
Coal - 1%
Gas - 38%
Renewables - 43%
Nuclear - 18%

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29
Q

What was Norway’s energy mix in 1970? (oil, hydropower, coal gas)

A
  • Oil 51%
  • Hydropower 42.5%
  • Coal 6.5%
  • Gas n/a
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30
Q

What was Norway’s energy mix in 2010? (oil, hydropower, coal gas)

A
  • Oil 33.5%
  • Hydropower 40%
  • Coal 0.5%
  • Gas 20%
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31
Q

Key players in energy - Energy TNCs

A
  • TNCs explore, exploit and distribute energy resources
  • Own supply lines and invest in processing of raw materials
  • Respond to market conditions to secure profits for their shareholders
  • EG BP, Shell, Petrobras
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32
Q

Key players in energy - OPEC

A
  • Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries – IGO
  • Members are oil producing countries EG Saudi where oil is the main export and is therefore vital for economic growth
  • OPEC countries control 81% of proven world oil reserves
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33
Q

Key players in energy - National govs

A
  • Role is to meet international obligations whilst securing energy supplies for their countries now and in the future
  • EG EU govs aiming to fulfil emissions targets and reduce fossil fuel dependency
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34
Q

Who are the biggest producers of fossil fuels? (Coal, oil, gas)

A
  • Coal = USA – 250 billion metric tonnes
  • Oil = Venezuela – 330 billion barrels of oil
  • Natural gas = Russia – 1.6 billion cubic feet of natural gas
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35
Q

Canadian tar sands - Costs (4)

A
  • Only viable when the price of crude oil exceeds $40 per barrel
  • Very energy intensive to mine
  • About 1.8 million tonnes of toxic wastewater are produced every day
  • Adds to GHG emissions
36
Q

Canadian tar sands - Benefits (4)

A
  • Provides an alternative source of oil
  • By 2030 it could meet 16% of NA’s oil needs
  • Offers energy security for Canada and the USA – 28% of Canada’s oil is used in Canada
  • Could serve as a fuel stopgap until more renewable energy sources become more viable
37
Q

Canadian tar sands - Implications for the carbon cycle (2)

A
  • Carbon emissions rise due to extraction, production and use of tar sands
  • Carbon absorption falls due to deforestation
38
Q

Other types of energy - Renewable energy sources (5)

A
  • Biomass – heat energy from wood, plants, animal and general waste
  • Solar power – energy from the sun generating energy through solar panels
  • Wind energy – Moving air turns a propeller-driven generator
  • Wave and tidal energy – moving water flows through a barrage, driving turbines
  • Hydroelectric power (HEP) – The vertical release of water turns a turbine
39
Q

Other types of energy - Recyclable energy sources (2)

A
  • Nuclear power – the use of atomic reactions to obtain heat, in turn heating water and generating steam to drive a turbine
  • Heat recovery systems – Where heat from air inside a building is used to warm air drawn from outside
40
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Costs of nuclear power (Japan 2011)

A
  • In Japan pre 2011 Tohoku, 27% of Japan’s electricity came from nuclear power
  • Fukushima reactor meltdown led to Japan closing all of its nuclear power plants
41
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Benefits of nuclear power (UK)

A
  • However in the UK, Hinkley Point C is an £18 billion project which will provide energy for 60 years
  • Will also provide 25,000 jobs involving French and Chinese nuclear companies
42
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Wind power benefits (Hornsea)

A
  • Hornsea Project 1 is a project where 190m high wind turbines will eventually provide power for 1 million homes once completed
  • Also created 2000 construction jobs
43
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Wind power negatives (Aylesbury)

A
  • In Aylesbury a wind turbine 25m taller than other onshore wind turbines will provide energy to 2000 homes
  • However, some local residents view it as a blot on the landscape
44
Q

Alternatives to fossil fuels - Solar power (Christchurch UK)

A

Chapel Lane Solar Farm in Christchurch cost over £50 million and is the UK’s largest solar farm – it serves 60,000 households or 75% of the homes in Bournemouth

45
Q

The growth of biofuels - main areas of use and comparison to electric cars

A
  • Brazil uses bio-fuel as a cheaper alternative to petrol – cars running on bio-fuel produce 80% less CO2 than petrol cars
  • Other countries such as Malaysia, the EU and the US have begun introducing biofuels as well
46
Q

Strengths of biofuels (3)

A
  • Renewable energy resource
  • Lower emissions than fossil fuels
  • Easily grown and does not need specialist machinery
47
Q

Weaknesses of biofuels (3)

A
  • Takes land from food production
  • Requires large volumes of water
  • Clearing the forests leads to the loss of a large carbon sink and increased CO2 emissions from the deforestation
48
Q

Opportunities as a result of biofuels (3)

A
  • Provides rural inward investment and local development projects
  • Positive multiplier effect in rural regions
  • Fuel earns export income
49
Q

Threats posed by biofuels (3)

A
  • Takes away investment from food production
  • Contaminates water resources with pesticides
  • Food shortages may occur which will lead to higher food prices
50
Q

Other means of reducing carbon emissions - carbon capture and storage

A
  • This uses tech to capture CO2 emissions from coal-fired power stations
  • Gas is transported to a site where it is stored, compressed and transported by pipeline to an injection well, where it is injected in liquid form into suitable geological reservoirs
  • Theoretically, CCS could cut global CO2 emissions by up to 19%
  • However it is not currently financially viable
51
Q

Other means of reducing carbon emissions - Hydrogen fuel cells

A
  • Once hydrogen is separated from other elements, it provides an alternative to oil
  • Fuel cells convert chemical energy into hydrogen with pure water as a by-product – these are far more efficient than petrol engines in vehicles
  • Separating hydrogen from other elements requires energy, but this can be provided by renewable sources such as solar or wind power
52
Q

Other means of reducing carbon emissions - Electric vehicles

A
  • Traditionally, the problem with electric vehicles is their range and price
  • However recently these factors have improved significantly with improvements made to corresponding technology
53
Q

Deforestation rates in Madagascar - pre 1950 vs 1985

A
  • Pre 1950 - 11.6 million hectares of tropical forest,
  • 1985 - 3.8 million hectares of forest
  • Loss of two thirds
54
Q

Impacts of Madagascar deforestation on the water cycle (3)

A
  • Infiltration decreased
  • Runoff and erosion increased
  • Flood peaks are higher and lag time is shorter
  • Increased discharge leads to flooding
  • More eroded material carried in the river
55
Q

Impacts of Madagascar deforestation on soil health (3)

A
  • CO2 released from decaying wood material
  • Rapid soil erosion leads to a loss of nutrients
  • Biomass is lost due to reduced plant growth / photosynthesis
56
Q

Impacts of Madagascar deforestation on the atmosphere (3)

A
  • The air is dryer
  • Reduced evapotranspiration makes it less humid
  • Oxygen content is reduced and transpiration rates are lowered
57
Q

Impacts of Madagascar deforestation on the biosphere (3)

A
  • Evaporation from vegetation is reduced
  • Less absorption of CO2 means a reduced carbon store
  • Decrease in habitats means that fewer animal species survive
58
Q

Benefits of natural grassland (5)

A
  • Traps moisture and floodwater
  • Absorbs toxins from soils
  • Maintains healthy soils
  • Maintain natural habitats
    -Acts as a carbon sink – absorbs CO2 and releases O2
59
Q

Disadvantages of converting grassland into biofuel crops (3)

A
  • Initial removal of grasslands releases CO2 from soils into the atmosphere
  • Annual ploughing enables bacteria to release CO2
  • Biofuel crops need carbon-based nitrogen fertiliser and chemical pesticides so they produce a net increase in CO2 emissions
60
Q

What is the significance of afforestation? (4)

A
  • Trees provide a vital carbon store as they sequester carbon during photosynthesis
  • Therefore it makes sense to replant trees that are cut down or establish forests on land not previously forested
  • This is known as afforestation
  • The EU’s Afforestation Grant Scheme encourages the planting of forests for their value as terrestrial carbon stores and for the ecosystems they provide
61
Q

What is the significance of ocean acidification? (how much CO2 absorbed, how much from FFs)

A
  • The world’s oceans have absorbed about 30% of the CO2 produced as a result of human activities since 1800 and about 50% of CO2 produced by burning fossil fuels
  • Ocean acidification has made the world’s oceans 30% more acidic than they were in 1750
62
Q

Impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs?

A
  • As CO2 in the oceans increases, its PH decreases becoming more acidic
  • As the oceans become more acidic coral reefs begin to dissolve
  • Corals can only survive in temps between 28 and 29 degrees – if water becomes too warm the coral turns white – known as coral bleaching
  • The biggest cause of coral bleaching is climate change – if CO2 emissions continue in their current rate, the PH of the ocean surface could be lowered to 7.8 by 2100 which would dissolve coral reefs entirely
63
Q

Ecosystem services - What are supporting services?

A

These keep ecosystems healthy by providing other by providing other services including soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling and water cycling

64
Q

Ecosystem services - What are provisioning services?

A

These are products obtained from ecosystems including food, fibre, fuel, genetic resources, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals

65
Q

Ecosystem services - What are regulating services?

A

These are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes including regulating air quality, climate, water, erosion, disease and pollution

66
Q

Ecosystem services - What are cultural services?

A

These are the non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems such as spiritual well-being, recreation, education and science

67
Q

Impacts of climate change in the Amazon

A
  • The Amazon Basin suffered severe drought in 2005, 2010 and 2014-15 – the worst to hit Brazil in 80 years
  • The Amazon Bay holds 17% of the terrestrial vegetation carbon store
  • The 2010 Amazon drought saw trees die and growth rates decline
  • The drought effectively shut down the Amazon’s function as a carbon sink
  • Forest fires broke out – burning trees and litter and releasing CO2
  • There are also further concerns that, should climate change increase temperatures and alter rain patterns further, the Amazon rainforest will change from a carbon sink to a carbon store, further accelerating global warming
68
Q

The impact of producing palm oil (Indonesia)

A
  • Huge swathes of forest in South-East Asia, Latin America and Africa are being bulldozed to create land for palm oil plantations – thereby releasing carbon
  • In Indonesia over 700 land conflicts in 2016 were linked to the palm oil industry
  • In 2011 Indonesia’s Pres declared a ‘forest moratorium’ designed to reduce deforestation with $1 billion in funding from the UN
  • By 2013 emissions had fallen by 1-2.5%
  • Indonesia want to reach a 29% carbon emissions reduction by 2030
69
Q

Forest recovery/loss stats

A

Between 2010 and 2015, an average of 7.6 million hectares of forest were lost every year – but 4.3 million hectares were also gained – leaving a net annual loss of 3.3 million hectares

70
Q

Impacts of climate change in the Yukon (4)

A
  • Increasing temps lead to increased evaporation and atmospheric water vapour
  • Annual precipitation rates set to increase by between 5% and 20% by 2100
  • Between 1958 and 2008 the total ice area in the Yukon shrank by 22%
  • Climate change is leading to the thawing of permafrost so water penetrates deeper into the soil instead of forming surface runoff
71
Q

Why is future climate change so uncertain - Physical factors (2)

A
  • Oceans and forests act as carbon sinks and store heat – oceans take decade to respond to change in GHG concentration – their responses to ever-increasing temps will continue to affect global climate for possibly hundreds of years
  • Human factors also play a role in forests as humans dictate the global amount of net forest loss per year
72
Q

Why is future climate change so uncertain - Human factors (3)

A
  • Economic growth - After the financial crisis of 2008 there was a worry that rising CO2 emissions would follow the recovery of global GDP – however after rising by 4% per year since 2000, the rate of emissions rise fell to 0.5% by 2014 – nevertheless total carbon emissions still reached a new record
  • Energy sources – Energy consumption grew by 2% between 2008 and 2014 – however renewable sources made up two-thirds of the increase in electricity production in 2015
  • Pop change – Increasing affluence and emerging economies means a potential extra billion consumers by 2050
73
Q

Feedback mechanisms - Peatlands

A
  • Most of the world’s wetlands are peat – the accumulation of partly decayed vegetation that stores large amount of carbon due to the slow breakdown in cold waterlogged soils
  • Warming causes peat to dry out as water tables fall as well as increasing the rate of decomposition
  • A warming of 4 degrees causes a 40% loss of soil organic carbon from shallow peat and an 86% loss from deep peat
74
Q

Feedback mechanisms - Permafrost

A

When permafrost melts it releases trapped CO2 into the atmosphere – increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and leading to increased temps and melting

75
Q

What are tipping points in the carbon cycle?

A
  • A climate tipping point is a critical threshold that can transform a relatively stable system into a very different state
  • Two particular phenomena lead to tipping points – forest die back and changes to the thermohaline circulation
76
Q

Tipping points - Forest die back (Amazon)

A
  • Rainfall in the Amazon rainforest is largely recycled from moisture within the forest
  • If the Amazon is subject to drought, trees die back – a tipping point can be reached where the level of die back stops the recycling of moisture within the rainforest – resulting in further die back
77
Q

Tipping points - Changes to the thermohaline circulation

A
  • Cold, deep water in the North Atlantic forms part of the thermohaline circulation
  • The keep the conveyor belt of warm water heading from the Tropics towards Britain, heavy salt water must sink in the North
  • However, the melting of the Northern ice sheets releases significant quantities of freshwater into the ocean which is lighter and less salty – thus blocking and slowing the conveyor belt of warm water
  • As ice sheets melt, the ocean circulation is susceptible to a critical tipping point
78
Q

Adaptation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Water conservation and management

A
  • Israel has a range of strategies to manage its limited supplies of freshwater:
  • Smart irrigation
  • Recycling sewage for agricultural use
  • Reducing agricultural consumption and importing water in food as virtual water
  • Adopting stringent conservation techniques
79
Q

Adaptation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Land use planning and flood risk management

A
  • Land-use zoning is a technique used for flood management where development on floodplains is limited to low-impact things like playing fields and parks
  • This is a low cost approach to flood management where infiltration occurs naturally and surface runoff is reduced along with the risk of wider flooding
80
Q

Adaptation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Resilient agricultural systems

A
  • Conservation cropping is growing in use, from the USA to Syria and Iraq
  • It involves growing crops using a no-ploughing approach – uses fewer fertilisers, retains stubble and grows cover crops
  • Benefits include increased yields and incomes for farmers, improved soil structure, healthier soils, water conservation and erosional control
81
Q

Adaptation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Solar radiation management

A
  • This is a form of climate engineering which aims to reflect solar rays and so reduce global warming
  • EG cloud brightening and space-based reflectors
  • Advantages include quick deployment, offsetting of some GHGs
  • Disadvantages include uncertainty about effectiveness, expense, and debate over the ethical, social and political issues surrounding its use
82
Q

Mitigation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Carbon taxation

A
  • A carbon tax is a fee paid by users of fossil fuels that is directly linked to the level of CO2 emissions that the fuel produces
  • Won’t guarantee a reduction in the level of CO2 but is meant to encourage the switch the renewables
83
Q

Mitigation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change -

A
  • Germany is a world leader in energy efficiency – its policies include:
  • Requiring residential and commercial bindings to reduce their emissions by 25%
  • Loans to renovate older, energy-consuming properties
  • Subsidies to improve efficiencies in manufacturing
84
Q

Mitigation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Afforestation and reforestation

A
  • Canada and Sweden lead on afforestation but South Korea has had a remarkable turn around
  • Forest degradation in SK accelerated during WW2 and the Korean War
  • Gov included forest rehabilitation projects as part of its economic plan
  • Between 1961 and 1995, the area of forested land in SK rose from 4 to 6.3 million hectares
  • By 2008 11 billion trees had been planted and now almost two thirds of SK is forested
85
Q

Mitigation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Renewable switching

A
  • Sweden leads the way in switching to renewable energy
  • Oil provided 75% of Sweden’s energy compared to 20% today
  • Benefits are clear – 83% of Sweden’s electricity come from nuclear and hydroelectric power – far less carbon emissions
86
Q

Mitigation strategies for the carbon cycle/climate change - Carbon capture storage

A
  • In 2014, Boundary Dam in Canada became the world’s first commercial carbon capture coal-fired power plant
  • It aims to cut CO2 emissions by 90% before trapping it underground before it can reach the atmosphere

Geography Paper 1 - Physical Geography (5 decks)

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