Section 4: The Winds Of Change 1947-67

Question 1

What were the British governments ambitions for its relationship with the old Dominions ? What was the reality

Answer 1

Regarded as Britain’s most reliable friends,
However dominions had their own interest and were prepared to assert separate identities
ANZUS military pact formed between Australia, New Zealand, USA in 1951, implied that the USA had taken over Britain’s responsibilities

Question 2

What was the new commonwealth that Attlee hoped to build

Answer 2

Association of free, independent states which transcend race, colour and creed
Envisaged the new commonwealth serving as an effective vehicle of British influence
Surrendering cost of formal control whilst maintaining informal ties, help protect economic interest and influence
Attlee declared to parliament in 1948 ‘ not solely a European power, but member of a great Commonwealth and Empire’

Question 3

What were the problems of trying to build this ‘new’ Commonwealth

Answer 3

India, Pakistan, Ceylon did not share the enthusiasm of white Dominions for great power pretensions
New commonwealth enjoyed no natural unity, little in common
B could not offer enough reward for association in the form of trade,investment and defence
Talk of racial partnership did not appeal to white South Africans who had implemented policy of apartheid 1948
Diff gov throughout the commonwealth

Question 4

What compromises had to be made to prevent the collapse of ‘new commonwealth’

Answer 4

Before 1948, Dominions had been required to recognise the British Crown as their head of state,1947-8 B no effort to bend rules to allow Eire or Burman to become republic and states within commonwealth
India determination to be a republic in 48 was a major concern
Compromise made, republican Indian would remain in the Commonwealth accepting British monarch as ‘Head of the Commonwealth’

Question 5

Despite Britain’s post war economic weakness, in what ways did the Sterling Area tie Britain to its former colonial possession more than its imperial ties

Answer 5

B struggled economically after WW2, likely they would look to the USA for an economic partnership
Economic weakness serve to reinforce the Commonwealth solidarity in trade + finance
A
Almost all Dominions used the pound sterling as the basis of their currency and banked their overseas earning in London
Tied currencies - countries supported
1947- various measures tied to the sterling area, obliging more imports from Britain
1/4 of worlds population and trade,closed economic bloc, exceeded main rival of the dollar area

Question 6

What was the British governments hopes for its African colonies and what was done to encourage development (colonial development welfare act)

Answer 6

• supply them with mineral wealth and source of men to replace Indian army. 1950 estimated Africa could provide 400,000 troops for an imperial army
  Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1945 allocated £120m over 10 years to assist the colonies , MUCH MORE MONEY, 1948 Act established the colonial development Corporation and the overseas food corporation to improve living standards in the colonies

Question 7

What is meant by the term second colonial occupation and what was the Tanganyika Ground Nut scheme? Comsequences

Answer 7

Urgently needed raw materials, aggressive new approach , ‘third force’ in world politics
TGNS- 1948 reduce the deficit of oils and fats in B, cost £36m, economic mismanagement, upset locals who were interested
Attempt to provide oil for Britain and employment for Africans

Question 8

What did the Labour government claim about its colonial rule, reality ?

Answer 8

Claimed abolished old type of capitalist imperialism , idealist notion to genuinely raise colonial standards,actually exploited its colonies for all they were worth, fall back on their monopoly of force, 1945-51 colonies forced to lend Britain more money THAN BRITAIN ACTUALLY INVESTED in the colonies, British dependence to be exploited

Question 9

How did the labour government reform Britain’s colonies in West Africa and why were the Gold Coast and Nigeria considered an exception

Answer 9

Aware that WW2 had led to need to widen representative gov and develop timetables for self rule, system of universal suffrage to elect an assembly was intro. Gold Coast, Britain still continued to control finance
GOLD COAST AND NIGERIA - well populated and educated elites, well known the way to complete independence ,large no of white settlers, complicated

Question 10

What was the result of political reforms that Atlees government introduced

Answer 10

Helped create the conditions which colonial politicians would have the means to organise on a large scale and ultimately drive out B rule

Question 11

How was the British rule of Malaya organised, why was it Important and what political reforms did the labour government propose

Answer 11

Allied itself with the Malayan elite
Economically - produced 1/3 of worlds tin and huge amounts Of rubber, powerful
Labour gov wanted create stronger more viable political unit and 1948 grouped the states and settlements into the Federation of Malaya

Question 12

What was the Malayan emergency and how were the British able to counter the communist insurgents

Answer 12

Malayan communist , encouraged by communist success in China, state of emergence, B troops, conflict dragged till late 1950s
Majority of Malayan remained pro British
Chinese specially guarded villages and won ‘hearts and minds’

Question 13

To what extent did imperial policy change under Churchill 1951-5

Answer 13

Accepted Britain’s withdrawal from Sudan and Suez Police state in Kenya – reassert authority through aggression, little reason for the extent of violence

Continued acceptance of independence in W Africa, forced to act out of necessity, clung on to colonies

Question 14

What problems did Churchill’s government face imperial policy

Answer 14

Faced fierce competition from Germany, France and Japan
Treasury warned gov, that Britain was carrying too many foreign responsibilities to its resources
Churchill and Eden opposed to B joining jettisoning oversea commitments, believe damage international status and economy

Question 15

In what ways were Churchill’s government at an advantage in its imperial policy

Answer 15

USA more concerned about keeping it’s European allies devoted to the struggle against communism than promoting decolonisation
UUSR not deeply involved outside Europe
1951, economy improved - devaluation of the pound - $4~2.80 had helped B exports
Africa, traditional leaders were still powerful and they displayed little interest in promoting nationalist mass movements that they could not control

Question 16

How did Churchill’s gov approach Africa

Answer 16

W.AFRICA - 1955 accepted Gold Coast and Nigeria should become independent, thought make little difference
E.AFRICA - create an East Africa Federation, harnessing Tanganyika to Uganda but plans abandoned because of African opposition, Kenya wanted to be ‘white mans country’
MAU MAU EMERGENCY- Kikuyu tribes protested against rising prices, revolting peasants and some criminal activity , MAU MAU EMERGENCY, many black Kenyans showed little desire to help movement, replace British supremacy, B also sponsored welfare programmes to help ethnic groups remain loyal
Central Africa - white settlers had no intention of giving power to black, supported establishment of Central AFRICA FEDERATION

Question 17

How did Churchill’s government approach Egypt and the Suez Canal

Answer 17

1951, Britain had 40,000 troops in the Suez Canal Zone
Anglo Egyptian 1936 was due to expire in 1956, B would not be able to lawfully maintain troops in any part of Egypt without their government
1952 riots in Cairo and British business premises destroyed
1952 Egyptian army officers seized power and forced King Farouk into exile
July 1954- agreement made by which British troops would be withdrawn within 20 months, B could re occupy of Egypt was attacked

Question 18

In what ways did Britain remain committed to maintaining a presence in the Middle East after WW2

Answer 18

B fearful about the Soviet Union ambitions in the ME- still remained in Brit sphere of interest despite withdrawal from Palestine (1948)
10,000 troops in the Suez Canal Zone, control over Aden and Cyprus as well as air bases in Iraq
B financed army of Jordan, B presence seemed strong
Brit, had to negotiate with Arab League in order to make sure they resisted Communism
HOWEVER Arab League would not support Brit, whilst they still had a military presence in Egypt

Question 19

What were the key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt,1951- 6

Answer 19

1952- colonel nasser comes to power: 1951 King Farouk independently renounced the Anglo Egyptian treaty (1936) BUT overthrown by Nasser in a military coup
1953- Agreement over Sudan - steps to Sudan’s independence
1954- agreement over Suez Canal,phased withdrawal from troops in the Suez Canal Zone, Egypt allowed free access through Suez Canal , maintain the bases in operational condition
1955- Baghdad Agreement: B makes treaty with W Turkey,Pakistan,Iraq,Persia to repel Soviet Union threat in ME, NASSER refused to join and encourage Jordan not to sign, Egypt signs arms deal with Czech (communist) - Eden furious
1956 plans for Aswan high dam - Nasser plans to dev. Construction of new dam on the Nile - Brit and USA withdrew, financial aid for the project due to association with communist powers
1956- nationalism of the Suez Canal, seizes Suez Canal company (44% Brit owned) , publicly denounced B imperialism

Question 20

What was the Sèvres Protocol and what happened during the invasion

Answer 20

Attempts made to resolve the issue by diplomacy in the UN- Eden become more aggressive- wanted Nasser removed as he had made agreements w Soviet’s
B and F both United to remove Nasser

Fra. because of French shares in the Canal &
Nasser’s encouragement of Algerian nationalism→Israel also wanted to weaken the power of its Arab
neighbour
• A secret plan was hatched between Britain, France & Israel called the Sèvres Protocol whereby: Israel would
invade Egypt (29 Oct); Britain & France would demand a ceasefire & withdrawal of troops the Suez Canal Zone; Britain and France would invade the Suez Canal Zone (31 Oct) to ‘defend’ it
What happened during the invasion?
• The Israelis invaded Egypt through Sinai
• The Egyptians refused to agree to a ceasefire
• British and French paratroopers invaded Suez Canal Zone
• Egyptian resistance was fierce and Nasser called for ships to be sunk to block the canal
• Britain was met with international disapproval of its actions

Question 21

Why did Britain have to withdraw its troops and hand over the police action to the UN (suez canal crisis)

Answer 21

B miscalculated international reaction - embarked on military operation without informing USA
didn’t realise the change in the change of world power
Soviet threatened to use nuclear weapons against L and Paris
Shortage of oil due to blocked canal + withdrawal investment in and trade with Britain led to sterling currency crisis- USA only agreed to help financial If B withdrew
B announced ceasefire within 5 days

Question 22

What were the consequence of the Suez Canal crisis

Answer 22

Never again would a British government seek to act alone in imperial or international affairs with the approval of, and close consultation with the USA
• Nationalist movements seeking to achieve independence knew that if they pushed harder they could force Britain to surrender→Britain’s task of containing nationalist movements became harder
• Called into question the whole credibility of plans to hold onto formal colonies in Africa and elsewhere → British politicians came to accept the demands of nationalists would have be accepted sooner or later
• It dispelled the notion that Britain could ‘manage’ and control its retreat from Empire whilst preserving British power
• The Commonwealth was shown to be less susceptible to British influence and interests
• Britain could no longer use military might as a means of maintaining control of its colonies
• Britain had to accept the immediate loss of its influence in Suez→having been there since 1875→although
they were compensated
• Pro-British regimes in the Middle East were embarrassed and weakened→Jordan denounced its treaty with
Britain & British influence in Iraq faded with a nationalist government like Nasser’s elected in 1958
• Many had begun to question Britain’s imperial role before the Crisis→it was a trigger of imperial decline but
rather ad symptom of a change already underway

Question 23

In what way could be argued that Britain was undamaged and remained a world power

Answer 23

Despite Eden’s departure,Conservative government won the 1959 elections
Relations with the USA were quickly restored
B continue to dominate the SHEIKHDOMS in the ARABIAN GULF
still had great military presence in the ME till late 1960s, had nuclear weapons, continued to defence oil interests

Question 24

How did British power in the Middle East weaken 1956-67?

Answer 24

• Iraq left the Baghdad Pact in 1959 after the monarchy was overthrown in 1958
• The British Middle Eastern base in Cyprus was granted independence in 1959 after years of terrorism and
violence between Turkish and Greek communities
• By the mid-60s, Britain only controlled air bases in Libya and retained a protectorate over a few sheikdoms in
the Persian Guld, Aden and the South Arabian Federation
• British rule was increasingly resisted by local nationalists and they evacuated Aden in 1967

Question 25

In what ways did the USA rise to global economic predominance after WW2
How did Britain attempt to meet the Challenge to pay for vital imports in the post war period

Answer 25

USA only nation that wasn’t damaged economically by the war,came out as worlds creditors, dollars became main currency, US Marshall plan 1948-52 provided B with $3.3 Bn

Britain needed to earn dollars and build up foreign exchange reserves to pay for imports, continued rationing at home reduce food imports, tried to develop the productive and export capacities

Question 26

Why was trade with the Empire and Commonwealth important up to 1960 and how much of British investment went to the empire and why

Answer 26

Malaya were major contributor to the Hard Currency Pool - having to keep some reserves in another currency so you trade W other nations
Provided essential imports of food and raw materials when B reserves of foreign exchange were too limited to source imports

Invested heavily in its colonies, 1956 approx 58% of all overseas investment were in Empire, BUT from 1960s other parts became important to Britain

Question 27

What was the Colonial Development Corporation

Why had Europe emerged as favourable trading partner by the 1960s

Answer 27

Built on the colonial development and welfare acts of 1940 and 1945, set up to co ordinate major projects and develop self sustaining agriculture, industry and trade
Not all schemes were successful - Tanganyika Ground nut scheme of 1948
Malaya rubber proved crucial dollar earner

European economy recovered from the war much more quickly and impressively
Advanced in science and tech
Full employment throughout Europe by mid 50s, living standards were rising

Question 28

Why was Britain rejected in its EEC applications in both 1963 and 1967? What does this reveal about the economic importance of the Empire/Commonwealth to Britain?

Answer 28

Exports to Europe outstripped those to the Empire in the early 1960s
• France rejected Britain application to the EEC because when Britain joined it would bring the Commonwealth with it
(imperial preference, Stirling Area) meaning that countries outside of Europe (with their cheap goods) would also join. Britain still cared about the Commonwealth and weren’t prepared to abandon it for Europe

Question 29

What was the Sterling Devaluation (1967)? Why did it hit Britain’s imperial pretensions?

Answer 29

1967, Harold Wilson announced that it was lowering the exchange rate so the pound became worth $2.40, down from $2.80 – just over 14% cut
• The decision was taken reluctantly, in the face of a balance of payment crisis. It was designed to cut Britain’s deficit by making British exports cheaper (but it made imports dearer)
• The further devaluation in 1967 shows that the strategies to strengthen the colonies failed
• It destroyed the old ‘Stirling Area’ by weakening international faith in the value of sterling and hit at Britain’s global
imperial pretensions –this was one of the things that tied the Commonwealth together

Question 30

How important was Empire/commonwealth to the post war reconstruction

Answer 30

Important - trade in the empire and commonwealth grew, IMPORTS: 1948-£933m to 1720m in 1965
Malaya major rubber export
Dependence to trade to feed Britain
Important still - Colonial Development Co operation 1948

Initially Britain refused to join the EEC & was rejected due to its commitment to the Commonwealth: Britain was uninterested in the EEC in 1957

Less important - devaluation of the £ destroyed the sterling area, Sterling wasn’t strong
Trade exports - 1948:46.19% to 27.9% 1965
Colonial developments projects failed
B relied on the USA, Marshall aid
Trade with Europe exceeded that with the commonwealth by 1947
Cost of administrating the colonies outstripped their value to Britain

Question 31

To what extent did Britain maintain a strong post colonial ties with its former colonies

Answer 31

Proud of creating new ‘nation states’ with their representative institution and practises i.e wigged judges,establishment of Commonwealth Secretary General and Secretary 1965 permitted conordination of many C activities, commonwealth emphasised political traditions shared, regular commonwealth conferences ,helped bolster B international position ,provided diplomatic network, B place on the UN Security Council key reflection of B status

Question 32

How did Britain maintain its military ties

Answer 32

Commonwealth had no formal commitment to Britain, maintain military W ‘global reach’, recruited citizens from Commonwealth nations remain eligible to serve, Hong Kong + Singapore maintain military base
National service encounter empire and commonwealth first hand, abolished 1960

Question 33

In what ways did the commonwealth continue to be financially linked to Britain

Answer 33

Major commonwealth economic conference 1952,city of London remained worlds major financial centres, keep ex colonies within sterling area, replaced former with old informal

Question 34

Why did British people migrate to Commonwealth countries post war, and why was it significant

Answer 34

Experience of war,continued rationing until 1954,increasing demand for labour countries such as Aus,NZ,CNDA offered better prospects, 87 100 emigrated to Aus,
Intensified range and depth of personal contacts between ordinary B people and white dominions

Question 35

Why were most people migrating to Britain from roe commonwealth by 1967

Answer 35

y the late 1950s, improved living standards and full employment within Britain helped curb the flood of people to the Dominions, and they increasingly looked to other sources of skilled labour around the world
• 45 900 people immigrated from India, Pakistan and Ceylon

Question 36

To what extent did Britain maintain strict post colonial ties W its former colonies 1947-67

Answer 36

Military basis
Commonwealth – regular commonwealth Conferences – queen remained head of it
Continuation of established Trade links Immigration/migration
Weak Ties
Legacies of law and political systems in the colonies Common language and some ‘anglicised communities’
Union Jack in corner of flags
Sporting competition

Question 37

To what extent did the Empire/Commonwealth continue to shape culture and public attitude in Britain

Answer 37

Did shape culture/public attitudes
Imperial themes in films and television - people regretted the loss of the empire but saw it was time for it to go
Education still focused on Empire
Migration affected public attitudes – more about
Didn’t shape culture and public attitudes
Celebrations of empire were less widespread – focused on modern Britain instead
People, especially youth, became interested in other things e.g. space race in Children’s magazines Travel to other areas – more people could travel

Question 38

What roles did the monarch play in the continuation of close relations with Britain’s former colonies
What other way did Britain remain culturally connect with its former colonies

Answer 38

Queen remained symbol of commonwealth,personally reinforced the connections through regular Commonwealth visits , regular meetings with Head of Governments from Commonwealth countries

Citizens of Commonwealth remained eligible for British honours, Empire Day abolished in 1962, sports spread, Union Jack regained in the corner of many flags

Question 39

What was migration to Britain from the empire like before 1947

Answer 39

Had been relatively small numbers of colonial immigrants settling in B since the late 19th century ,little exposure to the E for most Britons

Question 40

What was the British Nationality act (1948) and the Empire wind rush

Answer 40

Recognition of the Empires contribution to the war, gave full B citizenships, free entry into B
Wind rush - steamship carrying Jamaican passengers, 1948, first post war immigrants to attract media interest

Question 41

Why were there recruitments drives in the 1950s to encourage people to migrate to B
Why did racial tensions increase in the 1950s

Answer 41

Plentiful and well paid unskilled work in the factories , actively encouraged immigration, NHS, 1956 London transport took on nearly 4000 new employees, plenty of jobs available

Initial reaction was curiosity mixed With uncertainty, indifference more common than intolerance, worries and dilution of British cultural and national identity

Question 42

How did the British public respond to the arrival of migrants from the Empire

Answer 42

1958- Teddy boy youth attacking black people
Oswald Moseleys anti immigration union movement increase activities ,1962 90% supported legislation to curb immigration
Between 1960-62, more migrants arrived in Britain > 20th century
1965 North London 1/5 objected working w black or Asian people
Racist attitudes were Strongest among the working class communities

Question 43

What effort were made to improve community relations and experience of immigrants
What was the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act? How was received by the public

Answer 43

Steel band music performed by immigrants become popular
1964- Notting Hill Carnival

1962 Commonwealth Immigration acts - control escalating immigration , free migration for former colonial subjects ended, divided immigrants into 3 groups, act unfair, difficult to obtain permits, act was popular

Question 44

What was the Race Relations Board (1965)

Why was it even more difficult for migrants from India and Pakistan to settle to Britain

Answer 44

RRB - reduce tension, forbid discrimination in public places,discrimination in housing and employment were excluded, couldn’t compel witness

Alien, cultural traditions,consumption of alcohol kept the local public houses

Question 45

To what extent did the Empire/Commonwealth continue to shape culture and public attitude in Britain

Answer 45

in
Did shape culture/public attitudes
Imperial themes in films and television - people regretted the loss of the empire but saw it was time for it to go
Education still focused on Empire
Migration affected public attitudes – more about
Didn’t shape culture and public attitudes
Celebrations of empire were less widespread – focused on modern Britain instead
People, especially youth, became interested in other things e.g. space race in Children’s magazines Travel to other areas – more people could travel

Question 46

What did Macmillan’s wind of change speech say 3 Feb 1960;

Answer 46

people are skilled, energised and initiative
• There has been an awakening of national consciousness and pressed their claim for an independence. It has to
be an accepted fact that black majority rule is coming to the continent
• Onward progress of civilisation and the spread of education makes nationalism inevitable
• Nationalism must be accepted as a fact and the national policies must take account of it
• If it is ignored it may upset the balance between the east and the west that maintained the peace in the world –
he wanted to ensure that the 3rd world joined the west rather than the east
• The ‘wind of change […] was blowing through this continent’

Question 47

To what extent was growing nationalism the main reason Macmillan came to adept the wind of change 1957-63

Answer 47

Didn’t want to spend money on controlling/policing
nationalism – saw it as a waste
Mau Mau rebellion had shown the British the extent of the dangers of nationalism
Nkrumah encouraged independence movements elsewhere – pan Africanism
Chapter 20: Colonial Policy and Administration
Decolonisation elsewhere e.g. France in Algeria (extremely costly) made it harder to justify retaining colonies
Changing attitudes of the British people – more concerned with bread and butter issues
International opinion/UN with new African member states – Britain wanted to be seen as reasonable
The Cold War - the threat of communism

Question 48

To what extent did B cling on to its imperial role 1963-67

Answer 48

Clung on to its imperial role
Growth of the Commonwealth in these years retained Britain’s global informal influence
100 000 British personal were ‘East of Suez’ and involvement in Malaya/attempts to strengthen Aden
Surrenders its imperial role/ indifferent to its imperial role
Effort to maintain influence/control over Rhodesia was piecemeal/ half-hearted
Turned to the ECC – movement away from the empire economically
It granted independence to most of its colonies

Question 49

What issues did the B government face w the new Commonwealth

Answer 49

Most of the hopes of the Commonwealth were not realised
• As early as 1964, The Times called it ‘a gigantic farce’
• The government’s attempt to ‘sell’ the commonwealth was a means of trying to sustain British prestige by
concealing the decay of British power
• By the 1960s the Commonwealth was moving away from any special commitment of deference to Britain
• New members hoped to use the organisation to help influence British policy, particularly with regard to
Southern Rhodesia
• Achieving a united policy on an issues was almost impossible

Question 50

What were Britain’s economic challenges after WW2

Answer 50

Cost of making the sterling convertible by 15 July 1947, costing the treasury €237million a week, B supposed to terminate all quantitive restrictions on imports by 31 Dec 1946, reducing economic power of Sterling Area
Britain owed £3,680million by June 1947 to sterling countries