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A Level Physics > Section 4 - Mechanics > Flashcards

Section 4 - Mechanics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a vector?

A

A physical quantity that has a direction as well as a magnitude

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2
Q

Examples of vectors?

A
  • field strength
  • force
  • momentum
  • weight
  • velocity
  • acceleration
  • displacement
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3
Q

What is a scalar?

A

A physical quantity that is not directional

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4
Q

Examples of scalars?

A
  • density
  • charge
  • resistance
  • work done
  • energy
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5
Q

How can a vector be represented?

A

By an arrow

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6
Q

What does the length of an arrow representing a vector determine?

A

The magnitude of the vector quantity

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7
Q

How to resolve vectors into their horizontal and vertical components?

A
  • use angle of vector (Θ)
  • for sinΘ
  • then for cosΘ
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8
Q

If two forces act on an object, when is equilibrium achieved?

A

When the two forces are equal and opposite

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9
Q

If three forces act on an object, when is equilibrium achieved?

A

When the resultant of any two of the forces is equal and opposite to the third force

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10
Q

What are the ways to work out forces on an object when it is in equilibrium?

A
  • vector triangle

* resolve the components

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11
Q

What is the centre of gravity of an object?

A

The point through which the entire weight of the object may be considered to act

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12
Q

Word equation to calculate the moment of a force?

A

Force x Perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot

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13
Q

What is the principle of moments?

A

For any object that is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that same point

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14
Q

What is a couple?

A

A pair of equal and opposite forces, not acting in the same straight line

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15
Q

What is the turning effect that couples create called?

A

A torque

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16
Q

How to calculate the torque of a couple?

A

torque = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them

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17
Q

What are the two conditions for equilibrium?

A
  1. there is no net (resultant force)

2. there is no turning effect (moment) about any point

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18
Q

What is the centre of mass of a body?

A

The point on an object where the mass may thought to be concentrated

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19
Q

How to find C.O.M of symmetrical objects?

A

Along the line of symmetry, or where multiple lines of symmetry intersect

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20
Q

How to find Center Of Mass of a non-symmetrical objects?

A

If an object swings freely, when it stops the COM is on a vertical line passing through the pivot

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21
Q

When an object is in equilibrium, what is true of the vertical forces?

A

They are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

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22
Q

When an object is in equilibrium, what is true of the horizontal forces?

A

They are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

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23
Q

When an object in equilibrium is supported at one point, what is the support force equal to?

A

It is equal and opposite to the total downward force acting on the object

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24
Q

the equation for velocity is on the data sheet. what do teh symbols stand for?

v=s/t

A

v=s/t

velocity= distance / time

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25
Q

The acceleration equation is given in the formula booklet. what do the symbols stand for?

a=v/t

A

a=v/t

acceleration=change in velocity / time

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26
Q

How to calculate average velocity?

A

displacement / time

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27
Q

What does velocity measure?

A

The rate of change of displacement

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28
Q

What does acceleration measure?

A

The rate of change of velocity

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29
Q

What is the gradient in a distance-time graph?

A

Speed

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30
Q

What is the gradient in a displacement-time graph?

A

Velocity

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31
Q

What is the gradient in a velocity-time graph?

A

Acceleration

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32
Q

What is the gradient in an acceleration-time graph?

A

Rate of change of acceleration

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33
Q

What is the area underneath a velocity-time graph?

A

Displacement

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34
Q

What is the area underneath an acceleration-time graph?

A

Velocity

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35
Q

What do negative values of displacement or velocity on a graph indicate?

A

Motion in the opposite direction

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36
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight upwards line represent?

A

Constant acceleration

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37
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight horizontal line represent?

A

Constant velocity

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38
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight downwards line represent?

A

Constant deceleration

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39
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a horizontal line represent?

A

An object travelling at constant acceleration - or no acceleration so constant velocity

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40
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a straight line downwards represent?

A

Acceleration is speeding the object up, but at a slowing rate because acceleration is decreasing

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41
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a straight downwards line, below the zero line, represent?

A

Negative acceleration - the deceleration is slowing down, and area below zero line so negative change in velocity

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42
Q

What is the equation for an object’s speed, moving at constant speed on a circle?

A

v = 2πr / T

where T = time to move round once

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43
Q

What are suvat equations?

A

Equations describing motion

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44
Q

When can suvat equations be used?

A

When acceleration is constant

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45
Q

What do the letters in suvat stand for?

A
  • s - displacement
  • u - initial velocity
  • v - final velocity
  • a - acceleration
  • t - time
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46
Q

How is the equation a=(v-u)/t derived using a graph?

A
  • velocity-time graph
  • gradient = acceleration
  • increase in y = v-u
  • over increase in x = t
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47
Q

How is the equation s=(u+v)t÷2 derived using a graph?

A
  • velocity-time graph
  • area underneath = displacement
  • area of trapezium = 1/2(a+b)h
  • s = 1/2(u+v)t = (u+v)t÷2
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48
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include u?

A

s=vt-1/2at²

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49
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include v?

A

s=ut+1/2at²

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50
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include a?

A

s=[(u+v)/2]t

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51
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include t?

A

v²=u²+2as

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52
Q

What experiment can be used to measure g?

A
  • drop an object from a height - measure using meter rule
  • use light gates to measure time taken for object to fall
  • s=1/2at² ∴ s=1/2gt²
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53
Q

What is a projectile?

A

An object that is projected or thrown through the air at an angle

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54
Q

What can be done with a projectile’s initial velocity?

A

Can be separated into components

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55
Q

When calculating projectiles, what force is ignored?

A

Air resistance

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56
Q

Ignoring air resistance, what is the only force acting on a projectile?

A

Gravity

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57
Q

What does gravity acting objects mean for the components of projectiles?

A
  • gives a downward acceleration - so affects vertical component of velocity
  • horizontal component of velocity remains constant
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58
Q

Which component of acceleration of a projectile is affected by gravity?

A

The vertical component

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59
Q

Which value is the same for both components when calculating projectiles?

A

Time

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60
Q

What is a resultant force?

A

A single force that has the same effect as all the forces combined

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61
Q

What is Newton’s 1st law?

A

An object will remain at rest or continue to move with a constant velocity as long as the forces acting on it are balanced

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62
Q

When is an object’s momentum not constant?

A

When there is a resultant unbalanced force acting on it

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63
Q

What is inertia?

A

The resistance to change velocity

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64
Q

What does the inertia of an object depend on?

A

Its mass

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65
Q

How does a bigger mass affect inertia?

A

Bigger mass = bigger force to overcome its inertia and change its motion

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66
Q

When travelling in a car and decelerating, what keeps you moving?

A

Your inertia - until something stops you, hopefully your seatbelt

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67
Q

Word equation for momentum?

A

Mass x velocity

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68
Q

Symbol equation for momentum?

A

ρ = mv

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69
Q

What is the unit for momentum?

A

kgms⁻¹ or Ns

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70
Q

What do objects have when stationary, in terms of momentum and inertia?

A

They have no momentum, but still have inertia

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71
Q

Is inertia a scalar or a vector?

A

Scalar

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72
Q

Is momentum a scalar or a vector?

A

momentum is a Vector

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73
Q

What is Newton’s 2nd law?

A

The rate of change of momentum of an object ∝ to resultant force acting on it. Change in momentum takes place in the direction of the force

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74
Q

If mass is constant, how can change in momentum be calculated?

A

Δρ = mv - mu

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75
Q

What can F ∝ Δρ/Δt be simplfied to? And under what condition?

A

F = m [(v-u)/Δt]

if the mass of the object doesn’t change

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76
Q

What is tension equal to (in terms of mass and force)?

A

T = ma + mg

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77
Q

What is force equal to (in terms of tension and weight)?

A

F = T - mg

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78
Q

What happens in terms of forces when two objects interact?

A

They exert equal and opposite forces on eachother

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79
Q

What is true about pairs of forces acting on different objects?

A

They are always the same type of force

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80
Q

What is Newton’s 3rd law?

A

If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite force of A

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81
Q

Do forces act in isolation?

A

No - they act in pairs

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82
Q

Why do pairs of forces not cancel each other out?

A

They act on different objects

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83
Q

How can Newton’s laws show conservation of momentum?

A
  • 3rd says F₁=-F₂
  • 2nd says F=ma so ΔPB/ΔTB = ΔPA/ΔTA
  • ΔTB=ΔTA ∴ ΔPB=-ΔPA
  • ∴ ΔPB+ΔPA = 0
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84
Q

What is the principle of conservation of momentum?

A

When bodies in a system interact, the total momentum remains constant - provided no external force acts on the system

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85
Q

What is the principle of conservation of momentum - in simple terms?

A

Total momentum before = total momentum after

provided no external forces act

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86
Q

What happens to momentum when objects collide?

A

Momentum is conserved

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87
Q

What is assumed when two objects collide and momentum is conserved?

A

There are no external forces acting

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88
Q

During a collision, will energy and momentum be conserved if there are no external forces acting?

A
  • momentum will be conserved

* energy might be conserved

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89
Q

How is the kinetic energy before and after an elastic collision?

A

Ek before = Ek after

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90
Q

What are the types of collision?

A
  • elastic

* inelastic

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91
Q

Are collisions between snooker balls elastic or inelastic?

A

Very nearly elastic

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92
Q

What is the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions?

A
  • elastic - Ek before = Ek after

* inelastic - Ek before > Ek after

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93
Q

Are collisions between molecules in a gas elastic or inelastic?

A

Elastic

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94
Q

What would it mean if collisions between molecules in a gas were inelastic instead of elastic?

A

Repeated collisions would slow gas molecules down, and would eventually settle at the bottom of a container

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95
Q

Are most collisions elastic or inelastic?

A

Inelastic

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96
Q

What happens to the kinetic energy that is ‘lost’ during an inelastic collision?

A

It is transferred to other forms

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97
Q

What is the ‘lost’ energy usually converted to during inelastic collisions?

A

Internal (heat) energy

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98
Q

What type of collision is undergone in crash barriers and crumple zones of cars?

A

Inelastic

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99
Q

Why are crash barriers and crumple zones designed to collide inelastically?

A

To absorb the kinetic energy in a crash

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100
Q

Which principle can be applied to explosions?

A

The principle of conservation of momentum

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101
Q

What can the principle of conservation of momentum be used for?

A
  • collisions

* explosions

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102
Q

In exam questions, what is the movement of all objects involved in explosions?

A

Initially, they are all stationary

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103
Q

What is the initial momentum of explosions when the objects are both stationary?

A

Total initial momentum is zero

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104
Q

What is impulse equal to?

A

The change in momentum

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105
Q

the equation for impulse is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

f △t = △ (mv)

A

f △t = △ (mv)

change in momentum = impulse

f=force(N)
△t= change in time (seconds)

m= mass (kg
v=velocity

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106
Q

What is the advantage of ‘following through’ in sports?

A
  • keeps force acting on ball for longer

* refer to F = Δp/Δt

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107
Q

What is the advantage of drawing your hands back when catching a ball?

A
  • reduces sting
  • as Δp happens over a longer time
  • reducing force on hands
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108
Q

What happens to Δp when there is a greater force on an object, acting for longer?

A

Greater change in the object’s momentum

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109
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph?

A

Impulse

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110
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph NOT referred to as?

A

Change in momentum

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111
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph?

A

Impulse (kgms⁻¹)

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112
Q

the equation for work done that includes displacement is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

w= F cos(Θ)

A

w= F cos(Θ)
w=work done (j)
F=force (N)
cos(Θ) = horizontal displacement (m)

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113
Q

For equation W=Fd, what must be done if force and displacement are not in the same direction?

A

The force needs to be resolved to find the component acting in the direction of the displacement

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114
Q

What can work done also be referred to as?

A

Energy transferred

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115
Q

What is the definition of 1J

A

The work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance of 1m (in the direction of the positive force)

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116
Q

What is power?

A

The rate at which work is done

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117
Q

the symbol equation for power is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

P = ΔW / Δt

A

P = ΔW / Δt

p=power ( watts)
W= work done (joules)
t= time ( seconds)

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118
Q

What is 1W in derived units?

A

1 Js-1

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119
Q

the equation for power is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

P = Fv

A

P = Fv
p=power (watts)
F=force(N)
v= velocity (ms)

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120
Q

What is true for the velocity in P=Fv?

A

It is constant

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121
Q

What are the types of energy?

A
  • heat
  • light
  • chemical
  • sound
  • electrical
  • nuclear
  • elastic potential
  • kinetic
  • gravitational potential
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122
Q

How is the equation for gravitational potential energy derived?

A
  • W = Fx
  • = Weight x Δh
  • Work done = Ep gained
  • so Ep = weight x change in height
  • Ep = mgh
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123
Q

How is the equation for elastic potential energy derived?

A
  • F = kx
  • when a spring is stretched, work is done
  • (area under f-x graph) = 1/2kx
  • W = Fx
  • W = 1/2 kx x x
  • W = 1/2ke²
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124
Q

How is the equation for kinetic energy derived?

A
  • an object gains Ek if a force does work on it
  • W = Fx
  • & F=ma → so W=mas
  • suvat to find F → s=[(u+v)/2]/t & a=(v-u)/t
  • subs a and s into W=mas to get W=1/2m(v²-u²)
  • so Ek = 1/2mv²-1/2mu²
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125
Q

What is the principle of conservation of energy?

A

Energy can be transferred from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed

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126
Q

What is true of the total energy when using the law of conservation of energy?

A

The total amount of energy always stays the same

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127
Q

What is the unit for efficiency?

A

No unit

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128
Q

What does it mean when energy is ‘wasted’?

A

It is transferred to internal (heat) energy

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129
Q

the equation for force is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

F=ma

A

force (N) = mass(kg) x acceleration ( ms-2)

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130
Q

The equation for force is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?

F= △(mv)/△t

A

force= change in momentum (mass X velocity) / time

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131
Q

What is a scalar quantity?

A

A quantity that only has a magnitude, without direction.

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132
Q

What is a vector quantity?

A

A quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

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133
Q 
Sort these into scalar and vector:
• Mass
• Displacement
• Velocity
• Time
• Force
• Acceleration
• Distance
• Speed
• Energy 
• Momentum
A 
SCALAR
• Mass
• Temperature
• Time
• Distance
• Speed
• Energy
VECTOR
• Displacement
• Velocity
• Force
• Acceleration
• Momentum
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134
Q

Is mass vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

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135
Q

Is temperature vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

136
Q

Is displacement vector or scalar?

A

Vector

137
Q

Is velocity vector or scalar?

A

Vector

138
Q

Is time vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

139
Q

Is distance vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

140
Q

Is force vector or scalar?

A

Vector

141
Q

Is speed vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

142
Q

Is weight vector or scalar?

A

Vector

143
Q

Is energy vector or scalar?

A

Scalar

144
Q

Is acceleration vector or scalar?

A

Vector

145
Q

Is momentum vector or scalar?

A

Vector

146
Q

What is the term for adding two forces together?

A

Finding the resultant of them.

147
Q

What are the two methods for finding the resultant of two forces?

A

1 - Scale drawings

2 - Pythagoras + Trigonometry

148
Q

How can the resultant of two forces be found using scale diagrams?

A
  • Draw the two forces tip to tail
  • Draw the resultant force
  • Measure the length of the resultant force and the angle from the horizontal
149
Q
A
150
Q

How can the resultant of two forces be found using Pythagoras and trigonometry?

A
  • Only works if the forces are at right angles
  • Draw a right angled triangle out of the forces
  • Use Pythagoras to find the magnitude of the resultant
  • Use trig to find the direction of the resultant
151
Q

When finding the resultant of two forces, when can Pythagoras + trigonometry be used?

A

When the forces are at right angles to each other.

152
Q

What is splitting a force into horizontal and vertical components called?

A

Resolving the force.

153
Q

When resolving a force (F) to the top right, what is the horizontal component equal to?

A

F x cosθ

Where θ is the angle from the horizontal.

154
Q

When resolving a force (F) to the top right, what is the vertical component equal to?

A

F x sinθ

Where θ is the angle from the horizontal.

155
Q

What makes vertical and horizontal components easy to find when resolving forces?

A

The two components don’t affect each other, so the two directions can be dealt with separately.

156
Q

On a free-body diagram, do the sizes of the arrows matter?

A

Yes, because they represent the size of the force.

157
Q

What is a free-body diagram?

A

A diagram that shows all the forces acting on a single body (and NOT the forces that the body exerts).

158
Q

What are coplanar forces?

A
  • Forces that are all in the same plane

* You’ll only have to deal with these types of forces

159
Q

What are the conditions for an object to be in equilibrium?

A
  • Forces acting on the object in each direction must be balanced.
  • No resultant moment acting on the object.
160
Q

Describe the motion of a body in equilibrium.

A

Either:
• At rest
• Moving at constant velocity

161
Q

Why might you resolve a force for calculations?

A

If a force is in an awkward direction, resolving it into vertical and horizontal components can make calculations easier.

162
Q

How can you demonstrate that three coplanar forces give no resultant force?

A

When you draw them out as a triangle, they form a closed loop.

163
Q

When there are three forces acting on a body in equilibrium and one is unknown, how can it be calculated?

A
  • Resolve each force horizontally and vertically
  • The horizontal forces must add up to 0.
  • The vertical forces must add up to 0.
  • Find the missing force.
164
Q

When resolving a force acting in an unusual direction, what is it important to do?

A

Choose axis that are sensible for the problem.

165
Q

What axis should you choose when resolving a force acting on an object on a slope?

A

• Choose axis at right angles to the slope.
• Turning the page to be parallel with the slope will help.
(See diagram pg 41)

166
Q

What is a moment?

A
  • The turning effect of a force around a point.

* Equal to the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of action to the pivot.

167
Q

What is the equation for the moment of a force?

A

Moment (Nm) = Force (N) x Perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force (m)

M = F x d

168
Q

What is d in the moments equation?

A

Perpendicular distance from the turning point to the line of action of the force (m).

169
Q

What is the unit for moments?

A

Newtonmeter (Nm)

170
Q

State the principle of moments.

A

For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments.

171
Q

In a lever, what forces act against each other?

A

The effort force acts against the load force.

172
Q

What is a couple?

A
  • A pair of coplanar forces of equal size that act parallel to each other but in opposite directions.
  • Produce a turning effect.
173
Q

What is the equation for the moment of a couple?

A

Moment (Nm) = Size of one of the forces (N) x Perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces (m)

M = F x d

174
Q

What is mass?

A

The amount of matter in an object.

175
Q

What is the unit for mass?

A

Kilograms (kg)

176
Q

What is inertia?

A

An object’s resistance to change in velocity.

177
Q

What affects an object’s inertia?

A
  • Its mass.

* The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.

178
Q

Is an object’s mass affected by the gravitational field strength?

A

No

179
Q

What is weight?

A

The force exerted on an object due to the Earth’s gravitational field.

180
Q

What is the unit for weight?

A

Newton (N)

181
Q

What is the equation for weight?

A

Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field Strength

W = m x g

182
Q

What is the value of g?

A

9.81 N/kg

183
Q

What is an object’s centre of mass?

A
  • The point through which the whole weight can be said to act through.
  • Object will balance around this point.
184
Q

Is the centre of mass always on an object?

A

No, sometimes it is outside the object.

185
Q

Where is the centre of mass of a uniform, regular solid (e.g. a sphere)?

A

At its centre.

186
Q

How can the centre of mass of a regular object be found?

A
  • Look at the lines of symmetry

* The centre of mass is where the lines cross

187
Q

How can the centre of mass of an irregular object be found?

A
  • Hang object from a point
  • Draw vertical line downwards from point (using a plumb bob as guidance)
  • Repeat with different point
  • Centre of mass is where the lines cross
188
Q

When will an object topple and why?

A
  • When the vertical line from its centre of mass falls outside of the base area.
  • Because the centre of mass causes a resultant moment around the pivot.
189
Q

What makes an object stable?

A

• Low centre of mass
• Wide base
E.g racing cars won’t topple over on fast corners

190
Q

For supports:

The closer the object’s centre of mass …..

A

….the stronger the force on the support …

191
Q

What is speed?

A

How fast an object is moving, regardless of direction.

192
Q

What is displacement?

A

How far an object has travelled from its starting point in a given direction.

193
Q

What is the symbol for displacement?

A

s

194
Q

What is velocity (in terms of displacement)?

A

The rate of change of an object’s displacement.

195
Q

What is the symbol for velocity?

A

v

196
Q

What is acceleration?

A

The rate of change of an object’s velocity.

197
Q

What is the symbol for acceleration?

A

a

198
Q

What is the equation for velocity?

A

v = Δs/Δt

199
Q

What is the equation for acceleration?

A

a = Δv/Δt

200
Q

What is instantaneous speed?

A

The speed at a given moment (as oppose to average speed).

201
Q

Describe the displacement-time graph for an accelerating object.

A
  • Curved graph

* If acceleration is constant, the rate of change of the gradient is constant.

202
Q

Remember to practice predicting different displacement-time graphs.

A

Pg 46 of revision guide.

203
Q

What does the gradient and area under the curve represent in a displacement-time graph?

A
  • Gradient = Velocity

* Area = Nothing

204
Q

How do you find the velocity from a displacement-time graph?

A
  • Find the gradient.

* You may need to draw a tangent if the graph is a curve.

205
Q

On a curved displacement-time graph, how do you find the AVERAGE velocity?

A
  • Divide the overall displacement by the overall time.

* No need for tangents.

206
Q

What is the difference between a speed-time and velocity-time graph?

A

A velocity-time graph can have a negative part to show motion in the opposite direction.

207
Q

How is uniform acceleration shown on a velocity-time graph?

A

Straight line

208
Q

How is a changing acceleration shown on a velocity-time graph?

A

Curved line

209
Q

What does the gradient and area under the graph represent on a velocity-time graph?

A
  • Gradient = Acceleration

* Area = Displacement

210
Q

How do you find the acceleration from a velocity-time graph?

A

Gradient of the line

211
Q

How did you find the displacement from velocity-time graph?

A

Area under the graph

212
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does the area under the line represent?

A

The change in velocity.

213
Q

What piece of equipment can be used in motion experiments?

A

Ultrasound position detector

214
Q

How does an ultrasound position detector work?

A
  • Records distance of object from the sensor several times a second
  • Connected to computer with graphing software to get graph
215
Q

What are some advantages of data-loggers over traditional methods of recording data?

A

1) Data is more accurate - don’t have to allow for human reaction times.
2) Higher sampling rate than humans (for example, ultrasound position detectors can take a reading ten times every second)
3) Data displayed in real time

216
Q

What are the suvat equations used for?

A

4 equations that can be used to solve constant acceleration motion problems.

217
Q

What are the 4 suvat equations?

A
  • v = u + at
  • s = (u+v)/2 x t
  • s = ut + 1/2 at²
  • v² = u² + 2as
218
Q

In suvat problems for a falling object, what is the value of a?

A

g (9.81m/s²)

219
Q

Remember to practice suvat equations and problems.

A

Pg 50/51 of revision guide.

220
Q

What is free fall?

A

The motion of an object undergoing an acceleration of ‘g’ (i.e. under gravity and nothing else).

221
Q

In free fall, what is the only force acting on an object?

A

Its weight.

222
Q

Can objects with an original velocity undergo free fall?

A

Yes, as long as the force providing the initial velocity is no longer acting.

223
Q

Describe the rate at which objects fall to the Earth.

A

All objects fall to the Earth at the same rate due to gravity (9.81m/s²).

224
Q

Describe an experiment to calculate g.

A

1) Set up a circuit with a switch that controls two parallel circuits: one with an electromagnet and ball, the other with a timer and trapdoor
2) Measure the height from the bottom of the bearing to the trapdoor.
3) Flick the switch to start the timer and release the bearing.
4) Bearing falls, hits trapdoor and stops the timer. Record the time.
5) Repeat 3 times at this height and average the time.
6) Repeat at various heights.
7) Plot a graph of height (m) against time taken squares (s²).
8) a = 2 x Gradient

(See diagram pg 52)

225
Q

In the experiment to calculate g, how is error reduced?

A
  • Bearing is small and heavy -> Means air resistance is negligible
  • Computer releasing and timing fall -> Reduces uncertainty
226
Q

In the experiment to calculate g, what is the biggest source of error?

A

RANDOM error: The measurement of h (using a ruler = uncertainty of + or - 1mm).

227
Q

In the experiment to determine g, describe what graph should be plotted and why?

A 
Height (m) against time squared (s²) because:
• s = ut + 1/2 at² 
• Since u = 0, s = 1/2 at² 
• 1/2 a = s/t² = Gradient
• a = g = 2 x Gradient
228
Q

Describe two experiments to find g.

A

1) Ball bearing drop with timer.

2) Card drop through a light gate.

229
Q

How do you find the acceleration from a displacement-time graph?

A
  • Find the gradient (velocity) at two separate points

* Find the difference between these two points and divide it by the time (a = Δv/Δt)

230
Q

Remember to revise experiments to determine g.

A

Pg 52/53 of revision guide.

231
Q

When considering vertical motion, what can the acceleration be taken as?

A

g (-9.81m/s²)

If you use a negative for upward stay consistent

232
Q

How do you approach projectile motion questions when an object is projected horizontally?

A
  • Consider vertical motion separately.
  • Use suvat to determine the time in the air.
  • Now consider horizontal motion.
  • Use distance = speed x time to find the horizontal distance travelled.
233
Q 
In suvat equations, what signs can these values be (can they be positive/negative)?
• g
• t
• u and v
• s
A

g = Usually negative (depends)
t = Positive
u and v = Positive or negative
s = Positive or negative

234
Q

How do you approach projectile motion questions when an object is projected at an angle?

A
  • Resolve the velocity into horizontal and vertical components.
  • Use vertical component with suvat to work out the time in the air.
  • Use the horizontal component with distance = speed x time to work out the horizontal distance travelled.
235
Q

What is Newton’s 1st Law?

A

The velocity of an object will not change unless a resultant force acts on it.

236
Q

How are the forces on an apple on a table balanced?

A

Reaction force of table = Weight of apple

237
Q

What is Newton’s 2nd law?

Written in two ways

A

• The force required to accelerate an object is equal to its mass times the acceleration
• F = m x a
OR
• The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force which acts in the object.
• F = Δ(mv)/Δt

238
Q

What is the equation for Newton’s 2nd law?

A

Resultant force (N) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s²)

F = m x a

239
Q

Explain why all objects fall at the same rate.

A 
Consider Newton’s 2nd Law:
• F = ma
When an object falls:
• mg = ma
• a = g
240
Q

What is Newton’s 3rd Law?

A
  • If an object A exerts a force in object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite force on object A.
  • i.e. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
241
Q

What must you be careful of with Newton’s 3rd Law?

A
  • The opposite reaction is must be the EXACT reverse of the original action.
  • The forces cannot both be acting on the same object!
242
Q

What is the Newton’s 3rd Law opposite reaction of a person pushing on a wall?

A

The wall pushing back on the person.

243
Q

What is the Newton’s 3rd Law opposite reaction of a person pulling a cart?

A

The cart pulling back on the person.

244
Q

What is the Newton’s 3rd Law opposite reaction of a person pushing back on the water when swimming?

A

The water pushing the person forward.

245
Q

What can be said about the types of forces in Newton’s 3rd Law?

A

The equal and opposite pairs are always of the SAME TYPE (e.g. both electrical).

246
Q

What is a friction?

A

A force that opposes motion.

247
Q

What are the two types of friction?

A
  • Dry friction

* Fluid friction

248
Q

What is dry friction?

A

Friction between two solid surfaces.

249
Q

What is fluid friction?

A

Drag or air resistance, due to a liquid or gas.

250
Q

What is a fluid?

A

A liquid or a gas.

251
Q

What factors affect the size of fluid friction (force)?

A
  • Viscosity of liquid
  • Speed of object (force increases = speed increases)
  • Shape of object (larger area pushing against fluid= greater resistive force)
252
Q

In projectile motion calculations, what is the significance of air resistance?

A
  • Air resistance is usually ignored

* This gives an answer which is too large

253
Q

Can friction speed an object up or start it moving?

A

No

254
Q

When energy transfers, what does friction result in?

A

Kinetic energy to heat and sound.

255
Q

What is lift?

A
  • An upwards force on an object moving through a fluid.

* Perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow.

256
Q

The resistive force from the fluid isn’t necessarily in the same direction as…

A

…the direction of the movement of the fluid

check the explanation but it should match this picture

257
Q

How does lift happen?

A

When an object in a fluid causes the fluid flowing over it to change direction.

258
Q

Give an example of when lift might happen.

A
  • A plane wing moving through the air.
  • Wing pushes down on the air, changing its direction.
  • The air pushes back with an equal and opposite reaction force (Newton’s 3rd)
259
Q

When is terminal speed achieved?

A

When the friction force equals the driving force or weight.

260
Q

Describe how a moving object reaches terminal speed.

A

1) Constant driving force causes acceleration.
2) As speed increases, so does the frictional force. This reduces the resultant force and therefore the acceleration.
3) Eventually, the frictional force equals the driving force and terminal speed is achieved.

261
Q

What factors will cause a terminal speed in a moving object?

A

1) Driving force that stays constant

2) Frictional force that increases with speed

262
Q

What things can be done to increase a moving object’s terminal speed?

A

1) Increase the driving force (e.g. bigger engine)

2) Reduce the frictional force (e.g. more streamlined object)

263
Q

How does air resistance change with speed?

A

It increases with speed.

264
Q

What does a v-t graph look like for terminal velocity?

A
265
Q

What does an a-t graph look like for terminal velocity?

A
266
Q

How can you find the terminal speed of a ball bearing in a viscous material?

A

Put elastic bands around the tube of viscous liquid at fixed distances using a ruler.

Drop the ball bearing into the tube.

Use a stopwatch and record the time at which it reaches each band.
…
(You could alter other variables instead of fluid velocity e.g the shape of the object)

267
Q

Describe how and why the speed of a skydiver changes as he falls.

A
  • Skydiver accelerates until air resistance equals weight.
  • Travelling at terminal speed until parachute opens.
  • Air resistance is now bigger than his weight.
  • This slows him down until his speed has dropped so that the air resistance is equal to the weight again.
  • This is the new terminal speed.
268
Q

Describe the velocity-time graph of a falling skydiver.

A
  • Velocity increases at a decreasing rate
  • Until terminal speed (flat part of graph)
  • Sharp drop in velocity when parachute opens
  • New terminal speed (lower flat part of graph)
269
Q

What is momentum?

A

The tendency of an object to keep moving in the same direction.

270
Q

What two factors affect the momentum of an object?

A
  • Mass

* Velocity

271
Q

What is the equation for momentum?

A

Momentum (kg m/s) = Mass (kg) x Velocity (m/s)

p = m x v

272
Q

What is the unit for momentum?

A

Kilogram metres per second (kg m/s)

273
Q

The total momentum before a collision is…

A

…equal to the total momentum after the collision.

274
Q

Is momentum conserved in a system?

A
  • Yes, assuming no external forces act.

* Even if the collision is inelastic.

275
Q

The total momentum before an explosion is…

A

…equal to the total momentum after the explosion.

276
Q

What can be said in terms of momentum after an air rifle is fired?

A

The forward momentum gained by the bullet is equal to the backward momentum of the rifle.

277
Q

What are the two types of collision?

A
  • Elastic

* Inelastic

278
Q

What is an elastic collision?

A
  • One where kinetic energy is conserved (as well as momentum).
  • No energy is dissipated as heat, sound, etc.
279
Q

What is an inelastic collision?

A
  • One where kinetic energy is not conserved (but momentum is conserved).
  • Some energy is dissipated as heat, sound, etc.
280
Q

What two equations represent Newton’s 2nd Law?

A
  • F = ma

* F = Δ(mv)/Δt

281
Q

Give the momentum definition of Newton’s 2nd Law.

A

The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force which acts on the object.

282
Q

Express force in terms of momentum and time.

A

Force = Change in Momentum / Time

283
Q

What is impulse?

A
  • Force x Time

* It is the change in momentum

284
Q

What is the unit for impulse?

A

Newton seconds (Ns)

285
Q

What is the equation for impulse?

A

Impulse = Change in Momentum

Ft = mv - mu

(Note: This is derived from Newton’s 2nd Law)

286
Q

How can impulse be found from a force-time graph?

A

Area under the graph (because it is equal to force x time).

287
Q

How can the force of an impact be reduced?

A

Increasing the impact time.

For example packaging takes longer to deform on impact, so absorbs shock and protects packaged object.

288
Q

Give some ways in which vehicles have safety features to reduce the force of an impact.

A
  • Crumple zones -> Crumple on impact and increase time of crash
  • Seat belts -> Stretch slightly to increase stopping time
  • Air bags -> Slow passengers down more slowly and prevent them from hitting hard surfaces
289
Q

When work is done…

A

…energy is transferred.

290
Q

What is work?

A

The amount of energy transferred from one form to another.

291
Q

Why is a force needed to move an object?

A

You have to overcome another force to move the object.

292
Q

What is work done against when lifting a box and what is the final energy form?

A
  • Work done against: Gravity

* Final energy form: GPE

293
Q

What is work done against when pushing a chair across a level floor and what is the final energy form?

A
  • Work done against: Friction

* Final energy form: Heat

294
Q

What is work done against when pushing two magnetic north poles together and what is the final energy form?

A
  • Work done against: Magnetic force

* Final energy form: Magnetic energy

295
Q

What is work done against when stretching a spring and what is the final energy form?

A
  • Work done against: Stiffness of spring

* Final energy form: Elastic potential energy

296
Q

What is the equation that relates work done, force and distance?

A

Work done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)

W = F x d

297
Q

What is the unit for work done?

A

Joules (J)

298
Q

When work is done on an object, is the object’s energy equal to the work done?

A

No, it is the CHANGE in the object’s energy that is equal to the work done.

299
Q

When using “W = F x d” with a changing force, what value of F is used?

A

The average force.

300
Q

In “W = F x d”, what is F?

A

The force CAUSING MOTION.

301
Q

What is an assumption of “W = F x d”?

A

The direction of the force is the same as the direction of movement (otherwise you must resolve forces).

302
Q

Define a joule.

A

The work done when a force of 1N moves an object through a distance of 1 metre.

303
Q

When using the equation “W = F x d” with a force in a direction different to the direction of motion, what must you do?

A
  • Resolve the force so that you have the component that is equal to the direction of motion.
  • Now use “W = F x d”

(See page 62 of revision guide)

304
Q

Remember, the sledge is only moving horizontally

A

…

305
Q

For a force F acting to the top right at an angle θ above the horizontal causing a motion horizontally to the right, give an equation for the work done.

A

W = (Fcosθ) x d

306
Q

For a force F acting to the top right at an angle θ above the horizontal causing a motion horizontally to the right, why does the vertical component not have an effect on work done?

A
  • It is not causing horizontal motion.

* It is only balancing out some of the weight of the object, so there is a smaller reaction force (in a sledge example).

307
Q

On a force-displacement graph, what does the area under the graph give you and why?

A
  • The work done

* Because of “W = F x d”

308
Q

What is power?

A
  • The rate of doing work

* P = ΔW / Δt

309
Q

What is the equation for power?

A

Power (W) = Change in energy or work (J) / Change in time (s)

P = ΔW / Δt

310
Q

What is the unit for power?

A

Watt (W)

311
Q

Define a watt.

A

The rate of energy transfer equal to 1 joule per second.

312
Q

What equation relates velocity, power and force?

A

Power (W) = Force (N) x Velocity (m/s)

P = F x v

313
Q

Derive the equation that relates power, force and velocity.

A
  • P = W / t
  • W = Fd
  • Therefore, P = Fd / t = F x (d/t)
  • v = d / t
  • Therefore, P = F x v
314
Q

For a force acting at angle θ to the direction of motion, what is the equation for the work done?

A

W = (Fcosθ) x d

315
Q

For a force acting at angle θ to the direction of motion, what is the equation for the power?

A

P = (Fcosθ) x v

316
Q

State the principle of conservation of energy.

A
  • Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

* Energy can be transferred from one form or another, but the total amount of energy in a closed system will not change.

317
Q

In a closed system, total energy in…

A

…equals total energy out.

318
Q

What is the equation for efficiency in terms of power?

A

Efficiency = Useful output power / Input power

319
Q

When will the principle of conservation of energy come up?

A

When doing questions about changes between kinetic and potential energy.

320
Q

What is kinetic energy?

A

The energy of an object due to movement.

321
Q

What is the formula for kinetic energy?

A

Energy (J) = 1/2 x Mass (kg) x (Velocity (m/s²))²

E = 1/2 x m x v²

322
Q

What are two types of potential energy?

A
  • Gravitational

* Elastic

323
Q

What is gravitational potential energy?

A

The energy something gains if you lift it up.

324
Q

What is the equation for GPE?

A

ΔGPE (J) = Mass (kg) x G.F.S. (N/kg) x ΔHeight (m)

ΔE = m x g x Δh

325
Q

What is elastic strain energy (aka elastic potential energy)?

A

The energy stored in a stretched rubber band or spring, for example.

326
Q

What is the equation for elastic strain energy?

A

Energy (J) = 1/2 x Spring Constant x (Extension (m))²

E = 1/2 x k x (Δl)²

327
Q

Where does the energy for human interactions come from and what energy transfers occur?

A
  • Food
  • Chemical energy is converted to other forms, such as kinetic energy
  • Some is wasted in, for example, heat
328
Q

Describe the energy transfers when a ball is thrown vertically up.

A
  • When the ball goes up, the kinetic energy is converted into GPE
  • When the ball comes down, the GPE is converted back into kinetic energy
329
Q

Describe the energy transfers when a person slides down a slide.

A

The gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.

330
Q

Describe the energy transfers when a person jumps on a trampoline.

A
  • When bouncing up, Elastic energy -> Kinetic energy -> GPE

* When coming down, GPE -> Kinetic energy -> Elastic energy

331
Q

What forces are involved when jumping on a trampoline?

A

Weight force.

Tension in springs and trampoline material.

332
Q

In reality there are other energy transfers in jumping on a trampoline, what are these?

A

To keep jumping at the same height each time, you would have to use some force from your muscles.

Each time the trampoline stretches, some heat is generated in the trampoline material.

333
Q

In energy conservation problems, what must you usually assume?

A

That frictional forces are negligible.

334
Q

Remember to revise conservation of energy problems.

A

Pg 65 of revision guide.

335
Q

Question:

A

Remember: the height from the ground is different from the length of string.
You need to find change in height

336
Q

In energy transfer problems where kinetic energy and GPE are exchanged, what must you do?

A
  • Put the kinetic energy change equal to the GPE change.

* mgΔh = 1/2mv²

A Level Physics (13 decks)

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