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PHGY 215 Module 2 > Section 4 > Flashcards

Section 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the brain stem composed of? (from top to bottom)

A

From top to bottom:
- The midbrain
- the pons
- the medulla

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2
Q

True or false: All neuronal communication must pass through the brain stem.

A

True

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3
Q

Why is the brain stem a vital link between the spinal cord and the higher brain centres?

A

Mainly because ALL neuronal communication must pass through it

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4
Q

What are the cranial nerves? How many are there, what kind of information do they relay and where?

A

A group of 12 nerves that emerge directly from the brain and relay sensory info for the head and neck.

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5
Q

True or False: The majority of cranial nerves arise at the level of the brainstem.

A

True

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6
Q

What type of functions does the brainstem control within the cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive systems?
a) Cognitive functions
b) Sensory functions
c) Vegetative functions
d) Motor functions

A

c) Vegetative functions. The brainstem controls the vegetative functions (body processes concerned with the maintenance of life) of these systems.

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7
Q

Where do muscle reflexes related to posture and equilibrium originate from?

A

Muscle reflexes involved in posture and equilibrium come from the brainstem.

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8
Q

Where is the reticular activating system (RAS) contained?

A

The brainstem

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9
Q

What does the reticular activating system (RAS) do?

A

This system plays a role in maintaining consciousness and alertness.

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10
Q

Where is the reticular activating system contained?

a) The brain stem
b) Cerebellum
c) Basal ganglia
d) Limbic system

A

a) the brain stem

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11
Q

True or false: The brainstem plays a role in sleep

A

True.

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12
Q

The brain stem serves 5 major functions:

A
  • Housing the majority of the cranial nerves
  • Controls the vegetative functions (body processes concerned with the maintenance of life) of the cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive system
  • Muscle reflexes involved in posture and equilibrium come from the brainstem
  • Contains the reticular activating system (RAS)
  • Plays a role in sleep
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13
Q

What is the primary role of the reticular formation in the brainstem?

A

The reticular formation, located in the brainstem and extending into the thalamus, monitors incoming sensory information (excluding smell) and acts as a filter for what we consciously perceive.

*It’s part of a system known as the “reticular activating system” (RAS), which includes ascending fibers that relay selected sensory information to the cortex. Notably, descending fibers from the cortex can also activate the RAS.

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14
Q

How is the brain stem involved in sleep?

A

Neurons in the brain stem produce neurotransmitters that act on various parts of the brain to control whether we are asleep or awake.

GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the body and is therefore heavily present during sleep.

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15
Q

Describe the structure and anatomical location of the RAS.

A

Consists of the reticular formation (a network of connected neurons running throughout the brain stem and up into the thalamus) and ascending fibres which send signals to the cerebral cortex

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16
Q

What does the diencephalon consist of? Where is it located?

A

The thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus

It is located at the upper end of the brain stem

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17
Q

Structures of the diencephalon function to relay sensory information between brain regions, and control many autonomic functions. It also connects the nervous and endocrine systems, and controls emotion in conjunction with the limbic system.

A
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18
Q

What is the primary function of structures in the diencephalon?

A

Structures in the diencephalon primarily function to relay sensory information between brain regions and control various autonomic functions.

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19
Q

What additional role does the diencephalon play in terms of connecting different systems and controlling emotions?

A

The diencephalon connects the nervous and endocrine systems and works in conjunction with the limbic system to control emotions.

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20
Q

What is the primary function of the thalamus?

A

To function as an integrating centre for all sensory input on its way to the cortex.

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21
Q

Can the thalamus remove signals?

A

Yes, it can remove lesser signals. It also ensures that stronger, more important impulses are sent to the appropriate cortical areas. It can also amplify or increase the importance for signals of specific interest. (e.g parents may wake up when baby makes slight noise but they sleep through thunderstorm)

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22
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

An integration centre for homeostatic functions and serves as a link between the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.

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23
Q

What are the roles of the hypothalamus? (8)

A
  1. controlling the production and/or secretion of pituitary hormones
  2. playing a role in the sleep-wake cycle
  3. acting as an autonomic nervous system coordinating centre
  4. controls uterine contraction and milk ejection
  5. controls fluid intake
  6. influences urine output and thirst
  7. involved in emotion and behaviour
  8. controls body temperature
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24
Q

True or False: The thalamus plays a role in controlling the production and/or secretion of pituitary hormones.

A

False. The HYPOthalamus controls the production and/or secretion of pituitary hormones.

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25
Q

True or False: The hypothalamus influences urine output and thirst.

A

True.

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26
Q

True or False: The hypothalamus controls body temperature.

A

True.

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27
Q

________ is the integrating center for homeostatic functions.

A

The hypothalamus

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28
Q

integration of all sensory input on its way to the cortex

a) hypothalamus
b) thalamus
c) medulla
d) pons

A

b) thalamus

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29
Q

What connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex?

A

The corpus callosum

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30
Q

What is grey matter?

A

The are that contains neuron cell bodies with their dendrites and glial cells.

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31
Q

What parts is the cerebral cortex divided into?

A

The right and left hemispheres

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32
Q

How many well-defined layers does the cerebral cortex consist of? Are these layers within the cerebral cortex truly independent?

A

The cerebral cortex consists of six well-defined layers. No, although they are considered independent layers, they are highly interconnected to form cortical microcircuits.

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33
Q

what are cortical microcircuits?

A

narrow columns through the cortex which allow for functional differences in different areas of the cortex

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34
Q

what is the corpus callosum?

A

an area of the brain that allows the right and left hemispheres to talk to each other and work together

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35
Q

what four lobes is the cerebral cortex divided into, and where are they each located?

A

Frontal lobe: front

Parietal lobe: between the frontal and occipital

Occipital: back of the head

Temporal: side of the head

36
Q

What is each lobe responsible for?

A

Frontal: voluntary motor activity, speech, and elaboration of thought

Parietal: receiving and processing sensory input

Occipital: initial processing for vision input

Temporal: vision and hearing

37
Q

True or False: The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex receives information on physical sensations.

A

True. The parietal lobe processes physical sensations.

38
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex located within the parietal lobes?
a) At the most posterior region
b) At the most anterior region
c) In the center

A

b) The somatosensory cortex is located at the most anterior region of the parietal lobes.

39
Q

What is proprioceptive sensation?
a) The ability to hear distant sounds
b) The sense of the relative position of one’s own body parts and the strength of effort in movement
c) The ability to taste various flavors

A

b) Proprioceptive sensation is the sense of the relative position of one’s own body parts and the strength of effort in movement.

40
Q

What are somaesthetic sensations?

A

Touch, pressure, cold, heat and pain

40
Q

The ___________ nervous system transmits somaesthetic sensations to the somatosensory cortex, which is located at the most anterior region of the parietal lobes.

A

peripheral

40
Q

What happens in the somatosensory cortex, and where is it located?

A

This is the location for initial processing of somaesthetic input as well as proprioceptive input. Located in parietal lobe

40
Q

What is proprioception?

A

Proprioception, or proprioceptive sensation, is your body’s ability to sense and understand the relative positions of its different parts, such as your arms, legs, and fingers, and to perceive the amount of force or effort being used when you move these body parts.

41
Q

Where does the output from the somatosensory cortex go?

A

Output from the somatosensory cortex goes to higher sensory areas for further processing, analysis, and interpretation of the sensory input.

42
Q

By what is the somatosensory cortex separated from the primary motor cortex?

A

By the central sulcus (a groove in the cerebral cortex). This controls movement.

43
Q

True or false: Every part of the body is equally represented in the somatosensory cortex.

A

False. Different body parts have varying levels of sensitivity. The somatosensory cortex, responsible for processing touch and movement sensations, devotes more space to highly sensitive areas like the hands and face.

44
Q

Does the information from the right side of your body go to the left or right hemisphere?

A

Crossing Over: The information from one side of your body goes to the opposite side of your brain. So, if you touch something with your right hand, the sensation is processed in the left side of your brain, and vice versa. This happens because the sensory pathways in your spinal cord cross over.

45
Q

Where is the primary motor cortex located?

A

The primary motor cortex is located in the cerebral cortex of the brain. Specifically, it is found in the frontal lobe, which is the forward-most part of the brain, just in front of the central sulcus.

46
Q

___________ neurons are neurons with a ________ shaped body and two dendritic trees. They are the primary excitation units of the prefrontal cortex.

A

Pyramidal, pyramidal

47
Q

What are alpha-motor neurons?

A

Neurons that innervate muscle fibres and cause muscle contraction.

48
Q

What do the axons from the primary motor cortex synapse with in the body?

A

The axons from the primary motor cortex synapse with the alpha-motor neurons of skeletal muscles.

49
Q

Which region of the brain works in conjunction with the primary motor cortex?

A

The premotor cortex, located just a few millimeters anterior to the primary motor cortex, works in conjunction with it.

50
Q

What functional regions are separated by the central sulcus?

A

The central sulcus separates the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobes from the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes.

51
Q

What does the motor homunculus do?

A

Depicts relative output of the primary motor cortex to the different parts of the body.

52
Q

The left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are connected by the __________

A

corpus callosum

53
Q

The cerebral cortex is composed mainly of ___________

A

grey matter

54
Q

Describe the function of each lobe of the cortex.

A

The occipital lobes do the initial processing for vision.

The temporal lobes are involved in vision and hearing.

The frontal lobes are responsible for voluntary motor activity, speech, and elaboration of thought.

The parietal lobes are primarily responsible for receiving and processing sensory input

55
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum?

A

It plays an important role in the integration of motor control and sensory perception.

56
Q

True or false: The cerebellum plays a role in the voluntary initiation of movement.

A

False: It does not play a role in the voluntary initiation of movement but rather contributes to muscle tone,
coordination, and precision of movement.

57
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Underneath and posterior to the cerebrum.

58
Q

What are the three functionally distinct parts of the cerebellum?

A

Vestibulocerebellum

Spinocerebellum

Cerebrocerebellum

59
Q

True or false: The cerebellum contains more neurons than the rest of the brain.

A

True. But, it only takes up 10% of the brain’s total volue.

60
Q

What is the vestibulocerebellum important for?

A

Balance, spatial orientation, and control of eye movement.

61
Q

What does the spinocerebellum do?

A

Regulates skilled, voluntary movements. It receives proprioceptive input to allow
continuous fine-tuning of movement. For example, if you were to reach for an object, the spinocerebellum is constantly receiving vision inputs as well as the spatial location of your arm and hand to allow complex movements to become smooth and precise

62
Q

What does the cerebrocerebellum do?

A

It receives all of its input from the cerebral cortex and is involved in the planning
of voluntary movement as well as the evaluation of sensory information

63
Q

Name and briefly describe the three functional parts of the cerebellum.

A

1) The vestibulocerebellum: It is important for balance and spatial orientation and control of eye movement.
2) Spinocerebellum: This area regulates skilled, voluntary movements by receiving proprioceptive input
to allow continuous fine-tuning of movement.
3) Cerebrocerebellum: This region receives all of its input from the cerebral cortex and is involved in the
planning of voluntary movement

64
Q

Which of the following is the cerebellum not involved in?

a) Contributing to muscle tone
b) Voluntary initiation of movement
c) Precision movement
d) Food digestion

A

d) digesting food

65
Q

The basal ganglia consists of several masses of _____________ located within the cerebral ____________

A

The basal ganglia consists of several masses of grey matter* located within the cerebral white matter*

66
Q

What are some of the basal ganglia functions?

A

Motor control, cognition, emotions, learning, etc.

67
Q

What are the four distinct anatomical structures of the basal ganglia?

A

the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus, and the claustrum

68
Q

What two brain regions is the basal ganglia linked with?

A

The thalamus and the cerebral cortex.

69
Q

What is the thalamus involved in?

A

Positively reinforcing voluntary movement initiated by the cortex.

70
Q

How are the thalamus and basal ganglia connected (the effects of it)?

A

The thalamus is involved in positively reinforcing voluntary movement initiated by the cortex.

Conversely, the basal ganglia can exert an inhibitory effect on the thalamus.

71
Q

True or false: The basal ganglia can influence the brain stem to inhibit motor activity

A

True

72
Q

What is the functions of the basal ganglia? (motor)

A
  • Inhibiting muscle tone throughout the body. Normal muscle tone is maintained by a balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs, adjusting either one allows for precise changes in muscle tone (like relaxing or exciting them).
  • Allowing purposeful motor activity while suppressing unwanted movements.
  • Helping maintain and coordinate steady muscle contractions such as those related to posture
73
Q

The importance of the basal ganglia in motor control is seen in diseases such as Parkinson’s Disease (PD), where dopamine, the main neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia, is deficient.

What do you think would be some symptoms of PD with regard to motor control?

A
  1. Increased muscle tone
  2. Involuntary/unwanted movements such as resting tremors
  3. Slowed initiation of movement
74
Q

What are the four general functions of the basal ganglia?

A

Motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning.

75
Q

What regions of the brain is the basal ganglia connected to and influences?

A

cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the brain stem.

76
Q

List the three main functions of the basal ganglia and the changes implicated in
Parkinson’s Disease.

A

1) Inhibiting muscle tone throughout the body; in Parkinson’s, patients suffer from increased muscle
tone.
2) Permitting purposeful motor activity while suppressing unwanted movements; in
Parkinson’s, patients exhibit involuntary/unwanted movements and a slowed initiation of
movement.
3) Help monitor and coordinate sustained contractions

77
Q

What does the limbic system include? What is it associated with?

A

the lobes of the cerebral cortex,
the basal ganglia, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus

it is associated with emotions, behavior, motivation, and learning.

78
Q

Which two major structures play roles in behaviour, and how for each?

A

Hypothalamus: Governs the involuntary internal responses in preparation for appropriate action. For example, when angry, the hypothalamus can increase heart rate, increase the respiratory rate, increase blood pressure, and shunt blood to skeletal muscles in
preparation for a physical response.

Cortex: Provides the neural mechanisms necessary for regulating skeletal muscle responses needed for behaviours. Higher cortical areas can also modify, reinforce, or suppress behavioural responses to permit more refined responses based on analysis of the current situation or previous
experience

So basically the hypothalamus controls what your body needs, and the cortex tells you what you think you need. E.g for Cliff Jumping the hypothalamus increases levels of stress hormone (if you jump, you’ll die) but the cortex tells you to jump as “last time I did this it was so fun”

79
Q

What is the limbic system associated with?

A

Emotions, learning, motivation and behaviour

80
Q

Can behaviours be conscious? Can they be voluntary?

A

They can be conscious or unconscious, and voluntary or involuntary.

81
Q

Briefly describe the nature of motivated behaviours.

A

Motivated behaviours can be homeostatic; for example the kidneys conserve water when there is a water deficit. They can also be non-homeostatic; these involve the reward and punishment centers.

82
Q
A

PHGY 215 Module 2 (5 decks)

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