Section 3 Flashcards
What is phonological development?
The gradual acquisition of an adult-like system of speech sounds that are used to convey meaning in a language. Phonological development can be considered in terms of both perception and production of speech sounds.
Being able to perceive the differences in speech sounds is critical to comprehending and developing language and is also an essential precursor to speech production. Speech scientists have hypothesized that babies come “prewired” to perceive minimal differences in speech sounds.
Define word awareness.
Tracking the words in sentences.
What is included in phoneme awareness?
Identify and match the initial sounds in words, then the final and middle sounds (e.g., “Which picture begins with /m/?”; “Find another picture that ends in /r/”).
Segment and produce the initial sound, then the final and middle sounds (e.g., “What sound does zoo start with?”; “Say the last sound in milk”; “Say the vowel sound in rope”).
Blend sounds into words (e.g., “Listen: /f/ /ē/ /t/. Say it fast”).
Segment the phonemes in two- or three-sound words, moving to four- and five- sound words as the student becomes proficient (e.g., “The word is eyes. Stretch and say the sounds: /ī/ /z/”).
Manipulate phonemes by removing, adding, or substituting sounds (e.g., “Say smoke without the /m/”).
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 4.
Rote imitation and enjoyment of rhyme and alliteration.
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 5.
Rhyme recognition, odd word out
Recognition of phonemic changes in words (Hickory Dickory Clock)
Clapping, counting syllables
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 5.5.
Distinguishing and remembering separate phonemes in a series.
Blending onset and rime (ex. what word - th-umb)
Producing a rhyme
Matching initial sound, isolating initial sounds.
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 6.
Compound word deletion (Ex. say cowboy but don’t say cow)
Syllable deletion
Blending of two and three phonemes.
Phoneme segmentation of words that have simple syllables with two or three phonemes (no blends) (ex. sh-e, m-a-n)
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 6.5.
Phoneme segmentation of words that have simple syllables with two or three phonemes (with blends) (ex. b-a-ck)
Phoneme substitution to build new words that have simple syllables (no blends) (eg. change the /j/ in cage to /n/)
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 7.
Sound deletion (initial and final positions)
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 8.
Sound deletion (initial position, include blends)
Name the phonological skills that should be present at age 9.
Sound deletion (medial and final blend positions)
Describe speech sound acquisition for birth to age 1.
- Reflexive (0–2 months):
restricted to crying and partial vowel sounds - Control of phonation (1–4 months): “cooing”
progress to vowel-like sounds, consonant-like sounds,
combinations of vowel-like and consonant-like sounds, Anderson and Shames (2011) describe this stage as “cooing” - Expansion (3–8 months).
vocal play and exploration
begin to try new vocal postures and gain more control over their oral musculature
produce isolated vowels, vowels in sequence, glides, squeals, and the beginning of babbling sounds. - Basic canonical (C+V) syllables (5–10 months).
begin of babbling. - Advanced forms (9–18 months).
increased babbling complexity + adult-like utterances called jargon
children say first words during this stage around one year of age, and produce immature versions of adult words (e.g., “da” for “dog,” “wawa” for “water,” “di” for “drink”)
Describe speech sound acquisition for 1-2 years.
Children use around 50 words (but not with 100% intelligibility) produce most (but not all) vowels reduce many adult word forms to simpler forms (e.g., “baba” for blanket, “do” for “dog,” and “kaka” for cracker) produce an average of 10 consonants (McLeod, 2013, pp. 86), often including /p m h w b n/
Describe speech sound acquisition for 2-5 years.
Most English consonant sounds are acquired by the end of the third year:
plosives, nasals, and glide sounds
selected fricative and affricate sounds
Some fricative sounds (particularly /s, z, ɵ, ð, ʃ, ӡ/), affricates (ʤ, ʧ), and liquids (/r, l/) tend to be more variable in age of acquisition and may not develop until the end of the eighth year.
Acquisition of certain speech sound like /s r/ varies widely!
Describe speech sound acquisition after 5 years.
As children reach school age, most begin to apply their knowledge of sounds to literacy skills.
One foundational literacy skill is the ability to understand the rules that allow sounds to be blended or taken apart, and how sounds relate to each other in words-> phonological awareness
What purposes does the oral mechanism serve at birth?
- Nutrition
- Breathing
- Gaining attention via crying.
What is a typical DDK for a 2 year old?
Typically developing 2 year old children can produce 3-4 syllables/second, and sustain a vowel for 5-6 seconds
How does sound perception change after birth?
Babies only a few days old can perceive differences in phonemes (e.g., differences in manner & place). Vowels [i], [i], and [a] are particularly salient to infants. Infants can also differentiate between phonemes that are not contrastive in their native language.
By 12 months, the infant has the capacity to categorize only those phonemes which are in its native language.
By 2 years children’s speed and accuracy for identifying words in speech is similar to adults –but is not fully adult-like until they are 12.
What consonant types does a child typically have in the first year of life
Nasals Plosives Fricatives Approximants Labials Linguals [b d m n] are the most frequently reported
What consonants do children typically develop between 1-2 years?
[t] [d] and [w]
What consonants do children typically develop between 2-2.5 years?
[ŋ] [k] [g] [w] [h]
What types of consonants are generally mastered by the age of three, according to studies?
plosives, nasals, fricative [h] and approximant [w]
What consonant clusters are generally predominant in 2 year olds?
Word-initial consonant clusters containing /w/ (e.g., [bw, kw]), where the target is [br, kl]
What consonant clusters are common in 2-3 year old children?
Common final consonant clusters for 2-3 year old children contain nasals
[r] consonant clusters are rarely produced correctly by 2 year old children
Describe the development of vowels in children.
Low, non-rounded vowels are favoured in the first year
Front-back vowel differences appear later than height differences
^ other papers however have found that there is variability in what order vowels are acquired, but they are acquired early
Number and diversity of vowels increases as children approach their second birthdays
At what age should children generally be understood most of the time?
By 5 years old, typically developing children should be understood most of the time, even to unfamiliar listeners.
One study found that TD 3 year olds were 95.68% intelligible, 4 year olds were 96.82 intelligible, and 5 year olds were 98.05% intelligible to an unfamiliar listener
What consonants should a child between the ages of 3;6 and 4;6 have in their inventory?
[p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ, f, v, s, z, h, w, j, l, ʃ, , tʃ, dʒ, (ɹ)]
Some studies have found that 3 year olds have acquired all major phoneme classes except for liquids
What consonants should a child between the ages of 4-5 have in their inventory?
[p, b, t, d, k, g, n, ŋ, f, v, s, h, w, j, l, tʃ, dʒ, ɹ, ʒ, ʃ, ð, θ]
Most studies indicate that 5 year old children produce over 90% of vowels, consonants, and consonant clusters correctly
Describe the changes in phonological errors in children?
Fewer occurring as children age
Some we still see b/w ages 3-5, weak syllable deletion, final consonant deletion, cluster reduction, fronting, stopping, deaffrication, and gliding (WILL see fewer as kids get older, REFER TO CHART to see when each process should outgrown)
What is prosody and when does it develop?
Ability to produce different stress patterns continues to develop
Age 3, typically will master trochaic stress pattern (e.g., strong-weak stress patterns such as garden, and butterfly)
Takes approximately 7 years to master words with non-final weak syllables in words (e.g., ambulance, caterpillar, computer, potato, vegetable)
What is the critical age hypothesis?
Children who have speech difficulties that persist to the point when they need to use phonological skills for learning to read are at a high risk for reading problems
What occurs to the oral cavity after the age of five?
b/w 5-7 children start to lose their primary teeth
Age 6 child’s skull reaches adult size
Lower face grows from 7-10
Lips and tongue grow from 9-13
Mandible, lips, tongue grow until age 16 for girls and 18 for boys
Throughout childhood and into adolescence refinement of movements of tongue tip, tongue body and jaw continue
What DDK and max phonation time should a child have after the age of 5?
5 syllables/ second on DDK task
Sustain vowel ah for 10-11 seconds
Describe a child’s speech development by the time they enter school.
Should be intelligible.
Typically have all consonants and vowels and most consonant clusters with 90% accuracy
Can produce all syllable shapes
May still struggle with fricatives /v/, /th/ and /z/ and approimant /r/ are acquired later.
Continuing to develop /s/ and/r/ blends.
Mastery of complex prosody (used by adults) continues to develop in school years, even beyond age 10
How does a child’s environment effect the development of normal phonology?
Socioeconomic status:
Inconclusive evidence. Some studies have found no difference in speech acquisition between groups of varying levels of SES. Other studies have found that children from higher SES households acquire speech earlier and have better phonological awareness skills.
Maternal Education:
Higher maternal but not paternal education has been linked to more advanced speech and language skills across many studies.
Few studies however have considered this factor as it relates to speech acquisition and the results are mixed.
How do language skills effect the development of normal phonology?
Children’s speech and language skills are interlinked.
Generally children who have typical language skills also have typical speech skills.
Despite this, it is IMPORTANT to remember that SOME children will only have difficulties with speech and not language and vice versa.
How does word frequency and the age of acquisition of words effect the development of normal phonology?
Word Frequency:
Words occur in languages at different rates (i.e., high frequency or low)
High frequency words → more likely to be accurate during speech acquisition, and may be better for facilitating progress in intervention.
Age of Acquisition of Words:
Some words are acquired earlier than others. The role of the age of acquisition speech accuracy is inconclusive. E.g., some studies find that voicing is learned with earlier acquired words, and others find the opposite.
Clinical application: including later acquired words in intervention induces greater phonological generalization
How does vocab size effect the development of normal phonology?
Children vary in the number of words they know/use
Bidirectional relationship b/w vocab size and speech accuracy
Early speech production abilities drive word learning → as children learn more words, their speech improves. More words may mean more detailed underlying phonological representations.
Define neighbourhood density and how it impacts a child’s phonological development.
The number of words that differ from a given word by one phoneme
E.g., dense neighbourhoods have a lot of words that differ by one phoneme (e.g., “cat” has 35 neighbours)
Words from dense neighbourhoods tend to be less variable in production in younger children
Clinically unclear how to apply findings as there are benefits to including both types of words in intervention.
Define phonotactic probability and how it impacts a child’s phonological development.
The likelihood of occurrence of a given sound or sound pair in a given language → thought to influence phonological representation. (e.g., “ca” in cat is more common than “cu” in cup)
More common sound sequences tend to be learned more quickly and with greater accuracy during the course of typical speech development → however some contrasting evidence that this is not related with speech accuracy
Define functional load and how it impacts a child’s phonological development.
How often a phoneme contrast with other phonemes in a language
E.g., sounds with a high functional load = w, m, b, r, h, s, k, n, t b/c there are a lot of words that begin with these sounds. “Th” contrasts b/c not many words have this sound.
Words with high functional loads tend to be acquired first.
Define the phonotactic structure of words and how it impacts a child’s phonological development.
The length and syllabic complexity of words influences children’s accuracy of speech production → simpler =easier
Found across languages
Define the phoneme input frequency and how it impacts a child’s phonological development.
How often a phoneme occurs in a language
Example: very few words use “th” but the ones that are, are used frequently
In general more frequently heard phonemes are learned earlier
Phoneme input frequency can be offset though by other factors. E.g., “th”, b/c it has a lower functional load, and is more complex to articulate.
What are some affective factors that can impact the development of normal phonology?
Pragmatic Factors:
Children might avoid saying specific words/sounds because others have found their speech difficult to understand. This can be observed in typically developing children and clinically referred children.
Might even avoid saying certain words upon Ax/Tx
Personal Factors:
Performance on a task may be impacted by the time of day, whether they are hungry, tired, bored, anxious, or disinterested in the task
What are some motor factors that can impact the development of normal phonology?
Phonetic/Articulatory Complexity:
How difficult a consonant is to produce from an artic perspective
Kent (1992) proposed different levels of articulatory complexity:
Level 1 (least complex/easy): [p, m, n, w, h]
Level 2: [b, d, k, g, f, j ]
Level 3: [t, r, l ]
Level 4 (most complex): s, z, sh, d3, v, th (both)
What are the different categories of speech sound disorders?
Functional (no known cause) Organic (developmentally acquired): - Motor/neurological - structural - sensory/perceptual
What are functional speech sound disorders?
Include those related to the motor production of speech sounds and those related to the linguistic aspects of speech production. Historically, these disorders are referred to as articulation disorders and phonological disorders, respectively.
What are articulation disorders?
Articulation disorders focus on errors (e.g., distortions, substitutions, addition or unusual idiosyncratic processes) in production of individual speech sounds
What are phonological disorders?
Focus on predictable, rule-based errors (e.g., fronting, stopping, and final consonant deletion) that affect more than one sound. It is often difficult to cleanly differentiate between articulation and phonological disorders; therefore, many researchers and clinicians prefer to use the broader term, “speech sound disorder,” when referring to speech errors of unknown cause
Name and describe some common motor/neurological speech sound disorders in children.
Dysarthria (execution):
Don’t see too many of these
Weakness or paralysis of speech musculature that affect respiration, phonation, articulation, and/or resonance
Motor Speech Disorder-NOS
Mixed signs of motor planning and subtle motor control difficulties but not enough to indicate a motor planning disorder or dysarthria
Childhood Apraxia of Speech (planning):
Very rare
Difficulty executing the volitional motor plan for speech in the absence of paralysis
