Section 1 Flashcards
How is skill developed?
It is a learned behavior and needs practice
What is the definition of skill?
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
What is a skill? (Means several different things)
- a technique (tennis serve)
- a sport itself (archery)
- a quality (consistently form well)
What are the characteristics of skill? (CLEG FACES)
Consistent, learned, efficient, goal directed, fluent, aesthetic, controlled, economical, smooth
What is the nature of skill?
One or a series of complex and co ordinated actions with consistency in the correct order
What is skill simplification?
Complex skills can use methods to simplify the task/demands of the skill
What is the effect of skill simplification?
Allow the performer to complete the skill under less pressure or with greater success
Are we born or do we become skillful?
Both but practice is most important
What is transfer of learning?
Basic skills acquired for most sports
Running, catching, jumping
What is ability?
What you are born with
What are the two types of abilities?
- motor (movement)
- perceptual abilities (decision based on situation - right decision at the right time)
What are the types of skill?
- cognitive (problem solving)
- perceptual (processing information)
- motor (voluntary movements)
- psychomotor (thought process and movement)
Give examples of perceptual or psychomotor abilities
- reaction time
- manual dexterity
- aiming
What is the difference between gross and fine skills?
- gross skills use large muscle movements associated with strength, endurance and power
- fine skills use small delicate muscle movements associated with speed, accuracy and efficiency.
What are the characteristics of open skills?
- require perceptual monitoring
- occur in an unpredictable environment
- no clear beginning or end
- action is constantly being varied
What are the characteristics of closed skills?
- prelearned and habitual
- occur in autonomous phase of learning
- clear beginning and end
- predictable environment
What are the characteristics of externally paced?
- Controlled by the environment/surrounds
- can be controlled by opposition or weather
What are the characteristics of self paced?
- you chose when to perform the skills
- rate of action is controlled by the performer
What are discrete skills? (Weightlifting)
- clear beginning and end
- can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills
- it can be repeated but it has to start again
What are serial skills? (Triple jump)
- number of discrete skills
- linked together into a performance consisting of several phases
What are continuous skills?
- they can’t be split up into subroutines
- (running, swimming, walking, cycling, rowing)
- no clear beggining or end
What is part practice?
Low organisation skills (serial skills) can be broken down into subroutines
What are the positives of part practice?
- reduces the mental overload of beginners
- won’t progress untill each part is right
- can be useful with complex skills or dangerous ones
- build experience and confidence
- staged success
- better technique
What are the disadvantages of part practice?
- takes times
- highly organised skills can’t be broken down
- transfer to whole skill may be difficult
- no kinaesthetic feel
What is whole practice?
High organised skills can’t be broken down as it would disrupt the flow of the movement
What are ballistic skills?
Short and fast skills
What are the advantages of whole practice?
- Easy transfer to real game/sport
- kinaesthetic feel
- saves time
- good for highly organised skills
What are the disadvantages of whole practice?
- not suitable for complex or dangerous skills
- not good for beginners
- mental overload
- performer may give up
- May pick up bad habits
What is progressive - part practice?
Complex skills are practiced in isolation and then linked together (chaining)
What are the advantages of progressive part practice?
- reduces the info load
- transfer of skill into while skill
- helps the flow of the skill
What is whole - part - whole practice?
Presents the whole skill to the performer then the subroutines are practiced, the whole skill is the reintroduced
What are the advantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- better feel for the skill
- develop a kinesthetic feel
- allows them to see how the subroutines fit together
- master each step
- improves confidence
What are the disadvantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- can’t be used for highly organised skills
- time consuming
- problems linking the parts together
What is massed practice?
Learner a practice continuously without rest
What are the advantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- better feel for the skill
- develop a kinesthetic feel
- allows them to see how the subroutines fit together
- master each step
- improves confidence
What are the disadvantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- can’t be used for highly organised skills
- time consuming
- problems linking the parts together
What is massed practice?
Learner a practice continuously without rest
What are the advantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- better feel for the skill
- develop a kinesthetic feel
- allows them to see how the subroutines fit together
- master each step
- improves confidence
What are the disadvantages of whole - part - whole practice?
- can’t be used for highly organised skills
- time consuming
- problems linking the parts together
What is massed practice?
Learner a practice continuously without rest
What practice advantages of massed practice?
- grooving in habitual skills
- good for experienced performers (motivated + good fitness)
- save time (no breaks)
- good to simulate when there is a fatigue element
What are disadvantages of massed practice?
- can fatigue (young)
- demotivate = poor performance
- boredom
- affected by lack of concentration
- not suitable for dangerous tasks
What is distributed practice?
Sessions that have rest intervals included
What are the advantages of distributed practice?
- good for beginners with low fitness and motivation
- good for continuous skills
- breaks allow performer to recover physically and mentally + feedback
- maintain motivation
- good for complex/ dangerous skills
What are disadvantages of distributed practice?
- time consuming
- skills may have to be re-introduced after each break
- May lead to frustration in discrete skills when rest intervals delay practice
What is varied practice?
Environment that allows the skills learned to be constantly changing which suits open skills
What are the advantages of varied practice?
- adapts the technique to change
- develops decision making + perceptual skills
- improves selective attention
- ‘warning signals’ makes reaction time faster
What are the disadvantages of varied practice?
- not suitable for closed skills
- need the motor program for it
- difficult for begginers
What is fixed practice?
Environment stays constant with a repetitive practice
What are the advantages of fixed practice?
- grooved in or over learned
- info processing is low
- habitual
- allows learner’s attention to be directed elsewhere
What are the disadvantages of fixed practice?
- not suitable for open skills
- can be boring and de-motivating
What is mental rehearsal?
Goes through the movement in their head to get the muscle active and build a motor programme
What are the advantages of mental rehearsal?
- good for Cognitive stage of learning (builds a mental picture)
- good for strategies and tactics
- used to reinforce successful movements
- reduce anxiety and increase confidence
What are the disadvantages of mental rehearsal?
- not as affective as physical practice
- not suitable with simple skills (strength)
What are the stages of learning?
1) cognitive
2) associative
3) autonomous
What are the characteristics of cognitive stage?
- ‘mental model’
- teachers gives mental image through demos, guidance, key words and cues
- gives performance full attention
- makes many gross errors
- feedback giving at rests (clear, simple, limited)
What are the characteristics of the associative stage?
- rapid improvement (few gross errors)
- make use of intrinsic or kinesthetic feedback
- attention to concurrent feedback
- more complex cues
- begin to use in varied practice
What are the characteristics of the autonomous stage?
- improves but less rapid
- becomes habitual, less conscious attention to the skill
- characteristics of skill
- analyse performance
- improvement of fine detail
- attention to complex tactical and situational consideration
What are the types of guidance?
- visual
- verbal
- manual
- mechanical
What is verbal guidance?
Speaking to the performer how the skill show he performed which needs to be clear, short and appropriate
What are the drawbacks of verbal guidance?
- learner must be able to relate info to the skill
- amount of info must be limited
- complex skills are difficult to explain (learner can get bored)
What is visual guidance?
To show or demonstrate the performer (video, poster, video analysis)
What stage of learning would visual guidance be especially good for?
Cognitive - helps form a mental pic of what to learn
What are the drawbacks to visual guidance?
- demo’s must be accurate
- complex skills may contain too much info to demo
- static visual aids may not give enough info and can become boring
What is manual guidance?
Holding or physically manipulating the body of support from the coach. Useful in potentially dangerous situations
What are the drawbacks to manual and mechanical guidance?
- feel of the movement is not the same as doing it yourself
- limited to early learner
- takes time
- difficult with large group
- eliminates mistakes so no correction is done
What is mechanical guidance?
Using aids such as harnesses, belts etc to get a feel for the action
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
- experience kinaesthetic
- improve confidence of beginners
- keep safe
- good for cognitive stage of learning
What are the factors to consider when deciding on the most appropriate guidance to use?
- danger level (m and m)
- size of the group (not mechanical)
- stage of learning ( cog = visual)
- complexity (not verbal = too much info)
- behaviour of the group
What are the 6 types of Transfer of learning?
Positive, negative, zero, bilateral, proactive, retroactive
What is positive TOL and how does it affect performance?
Where a previously learned skill has a beneficial effect on a newly learned skill eg. Badminton over arm can benefit over arm in tennis
- quickly understand the new skill if previous skill is learned well
- helps develop correct motor programme
What is negative TOL and how does it affect performance?
Where one skill hinders the learning of another eg tennis player playing squash play forehand with stuff wrist rather than correct squash technique
- difference in kinasthetic feel can cause confusion
- causes incorrect technique
- can de-motivate a performer
- needs to make sure original skill has a well grooved motor programme
What is proactive TOL and how does it affect performance?
Skill learned for the past effects the current learning of a skill
- this can be positive or negative
What is retroactive TOL and how does it affect performance?
Current learning of a skill affects the performance of a previously learned skill
- pos or neg
- neg retroactive transfer is less likely to happen with highly skilled performers
What is bilateral TOL and how does it affect performance?
The skill is transferred from one limb to another eg. Football, passing with both feet
- neg or pos
- able to build motor programme for both limbs
- the performer can mentally picture the action of the dominant limb on the other
What is zero TOL and how does it affect performance?
Where a previously skill has no effect on a newly learned skill usually due to different structure of skill
- bad when two skills has different cognitive skills
- a whole new motor programs has to be learned
How can a coach ensure that successful transfer of learning takes place?
- Make them aware of potential transfer
- ensure the original movement pattern is well learnt
- highlight similar techniques that are similar
- plan progression to build confidence
- break the skill into subroutines
- give praise and reinforce
- eliminate bad habits
- make sure they understand the skill
- make session realistic
What is a motor programme?
Series of movements stored in the LTM which is well grooved that we associate with a particular stimuli
What is open loop motor programme?
- No feedback is used to produce the movement
- it happens too quick
- feedback is received after the action is completed
- stored as a memory trace
Describe the model for open loop control..
Input - ball Perceptual mechanism - speed, height Executive system - decision making Executive mechan - get into position Output - catching the ball
Why is open loop not applicable to all skills?
- Some skills happen slower
- some skills you are able to adjust
- lots of motor programme would be needed
- some are closed skills
How does closed loop control work?
- the performer uses internal feedback (KF) to complete the loop eg performing a handstand going off balance
Explain Adam’s closed loop control..
1- memory trace is the motor programme of the skill which is based on practice and stored in LTM. This imitates the movement
2- once initiated the skill is controlled by the perceptual trace. Learning involves development of PT through feedback
3- the two memory traces are compared - if they match, movement continues. If mismatch, bad performance and adjust MP
What are the characteristics of the sensory stores?
- all stimuli enter
- held for 0.25-1 sec
- selective attention = picks out the important info and directs attention to it (sorts relevant from irrelevant)
What are some factors that effect the selective attention process?
1) experience - know what looking for
2) arousal - alert enough
3) qualify of instruction - coach taught what cues to pick up on
4) intensity of stimuli - speed, noise, colour etc
5) age
6) motivation
How can selective attention be improved? Eg timing a tackle - focusing on the ball
- practice with distractions
- increase intensity of the stimuli
- coach directing performers to important cues and telling them which ones to ignore
- practice with distractions
What are the characteristics of short term memory?
- incoming info is compared to the LTM eg remembering a player’s dummy throw
- info paid attention from sensory store goes into STM
- limited capacity 5-9
- duration 30 seconds unless rehearsed
- important info is practiced and passed into the LTM
- when performing a skill, info from LTM from past experiences is brought into STM caused by a certain stimuli
What are characteristics of LTM?
- limitless capacity
- info stored as motor programmes
- when info has been rehearsed in the STM is transfers into the LTM
What are the factors that influence retention and memory retrieval?
- rehearsal - more it’s remembered
- meaningfulness - (personal)
- speed of learning - quicker it’s learned the more it will be remembered
- over learning - more practiced, better it will be remembered
What are the Factors that can improve memory?
1- rehearsal/over practice - retain info in the LTM
2- chunking - more info can be remembered if it’s linked in chunks
3- chaining - breaking down a complex skill into subroutines
4- imagery - the more unusual the image the better it’s remembered
5- organizing - dance instructor would teach the routine in the correct order
What is the definition of reaction time?
The time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of a movement in response to it
What are the 4 parts that reaction time is made up of?
1) stimulus activates a sensory system (input)
2) stimulus travels from sensory system to the brain
3) the brain decides on a response to the stimulus
4) app riposte command is sent from the brain to relevant muscles to carry out the action
What are the 3 components of reaction time?
1) reaction time - time between the stimulus and the start of the movement
2) movement time - time taken between the starting the movement and completing it
3) response time - RT + MT - from start of stimulus to end of movement eg sprinter (gun going to crossing finish line)
What are the factors that affect reaction time?
1) age - after 20 decreases
2) gender - males are quicker RT
3) arousal - optimum level react quickly
4) body temp - colder = slower RT
5) limb used
6) number of choices
7) height
What are the external factors that affect reaction time?
1) a warning - fast when expecting (after ‘set’ gun will go off)
2) stimulus intensity
3) likelihood - eg badminton player who always dose a low serve so expecting it
What is simple reaction?
Only having to respond to one stimulus eg gun going off
What is the single channel hypothesis?
- when you revive lots of stimuli, only one piece of info can be processed at a time
- one piece of info has to be processed before processing another leading to a increase in reaction time
What is choice reaction? Eg in badminton where the opponent plays many possible shots
Where the performer is faced with more than one stimuli and more than one possible response
- the more stimuli the slower the reaction time
How can reaction time be improved?
1) practice - performer improves cue recognition
2) mental rehearsal - attention to correct cues and response to correct stimuli. It activates the muscles needed (arousal)
3) warm up - ensures physical and mental preparation
4) selective attention - focusing on relevant information
What is temporal anticipation?
When the performer predicts what is going to happen but is insure when it’s going to happen
What is spatial anticipation?
Predict when and what is going to happen and ready with appropriate actions to respond
What is the psychological refractory period?
When the performer responds to an incorrect stimuli, there is a pause where the info has to be processed before they process the correct stimulus. The PRP is the extra time
This can be done from a dummy or deflections
Explain hick’s law graph
- as the number of possible responses increases, the response time also increases
- high amount if choices the response time stays the same
- if player only has small number of shots, the opponent can anticipate and will be quick responding
- opp will be opp
What is the definition of a goal?
- target to be achieved
- level of performance to be reached
- agreement between coach and performer
What are the benefits of goals on the performer?
- attention (focus in performance)
- motivation
- persistence (not giving up - maintain effort over a period of time)
- stress management (increase confidence, reduce anxiety
- new strategies (helps analysing goals)
What are the three types of goals?
1) process goals (improving technique)
2) performance goals (personal bests, what the individual can do to develop their performance)
3) outcome goals (end result, big ego, but may play best game but still lost)
Give an example for the three types of goals…
1) Process - improve passing tech
2) Performance - more passes in the game
3) outcome - to win the game
What are the principles of goal setting (SMARTER)
Specific -greater likelihood accomplish Measurable - motivating Agreed - maintain commitment Realistic -greater likelihood accomplish Time - bounded Exciting - motivated to continue Recorded - allows you to see progress
What are the characteristics of time bounded goals?
- short term (recognise success, self esteem, motivate, being in control, makes long term goals be attainable
- intermediate (quantitive targets, concentrate on gradual increase
Name the 4 types of teaching styles
1) command
2) guided discovery
3) reciprocal
4) problem solving
What are the advantages of command?
- teacher makes all the decisions, tight control of the class, instructions
- safety
- quick
- correct technique
- large groups
- learner knows exactly what is required
- good for dangerous skills
- good for begginners
What are the disadvantages of command style of teaching?
- no creativity
- doesn’t develop social skills
- bad for knowledge and understanding of the skill
- boring and demotivating
- bad teacher leads to bad technique
- bad for autonomous
What are the advantages of guided discovery teaching style?
- guides the pupil to find solution
- provides cues
- cognitive development (find solution - trial and error)
- social skills (communication + listening)
- improves self confidence
- creativity
- good for high level performer
What are the disadvantages of guided discovery?
- can be bad for cognitive (if they can’t figure it out they will give up)
- bad for dangerous skills
- time consuming (evaluating and give feedback)
- need to be will motivated and intelligent
What are the advantages of problem solving teaching style?
- creativity
- responsibility
- bright kids
- social skills (communication)
- develop understanding of the skill
- improves decision making
What are the disadvantages of problem solving coaching styles?
- time consuming
- ## large groups (dangerous skills)
What is social learning?
Coping the behaviour of others which is how most of our learning takes place. It is most likely to be copied of it’s demonstrated and reinforced by a role model
Give the characteristics of social learning..
- more likely to be copied if the model is the same gender
- type of visual guidance
- more powerful than simply explaining
- good for begginners to see the skill
What is bandura’s observational theory? (ARRMMM) after the demonstration
- attention (focus, takes note)
- retention (remembers the demo, stored in LTM)
- motor reproduction (attempts to copy the movement)
- motivated (external reinforcement will increase motivation)
- matching performance (successfully reinforcement of the skill)
Why are skills copied?
- to achieve success
- to be praised
What makes an effective demonstration?
- break down into sub routines
- highlight cues
- make interesting
- see demo from diff angles and speeds (coaches eye)
- repeat the demo
What is the model for information processing?
1) display and input data (environment)
2) sense organs or receptors (vision, audition, proprioception - equilibrium, touch, Kin feel)
3) perceptual mechanism (interprets the info by selective attention
4) translatory mechan (whiting only) - a response is selected in the form of a motor programme
5) effector mechanism (impulses sent to muscles needed to carry out the movement)
6) muscular system (muscles needed receive the impulses
7) response (movement is performed)
8) feedback (intrinsic or extrinsic)
What are the 3 parts of perpetual mechanism in welford’s model?
1) detection - identify the stimulus
2) comparison - compared to similar stimuli in memory
3) recognition - matching it to a stored stimulus in LTM
