Second Half Flashcards
What are the 3 types of movement?
Reflexive –> peripheral stimuli produces involuntary coordinated pattern of muscle contraction/relaxation (stretch reflex)Rhythmic –> can be spontaneous or due to peripheral stimuli; repetitive (chewing, scratching)Voluntary–> goal directed movement, improves with practice
How is the spinal cord nerves organized?
31 nerves: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygealCervical: controls upper limb musclesThoracic: controls trunk and chest musculatureLumbar: controls lower back and leg musclesSacral: controls bowel and bladder muscles
What are the 4 types of spinal cord neurons
Local –> axons confined to adjacent spinal segmentsMotor –> axons innervate muscle fibres; organized in a distal (lateral) to proximal (medial) fashionPropriospinal –> axons connect distal spinal segmentsProjection –> axons reach higher brain centres
Describe motor units
One motor unit = motor neuron + all fibres it innervatesone motor neuron integrates multiple fibres, each fibre innervated by one neuronunits can be fast or slow twitchsize of motor units relates to amount of control needed (finer selection of motor fibres to contract if smaller units)Number of motor units recruited related to force generated
Describe how a muscle is innervated
Axons loses myelin sheath, branches into multiple extensions called synaptic boutons. It connects to a portion of the muscle membrane called the endplate. Boutons are positioned over junctional folds (deep depression in the post-synaptic muscle fiber) that have Ach receptors. Depolarization of axon causes Ca2+ to enter boutons, causes release of Ach. Ach crosses synaptic cleft, binds to the Ach receptors and depolarizes end plate to create potential. Ach receptors equally permeable to Na and K, but potential activates the voltage-gated Na+ receptors, which creates an action potential.
How is muscle force increased
recruit more motor unitsincrease frequency of action potentials, results in complete tetany (twitch–> summation–> incomplete tetany–> complete tetany)
What are spinal reflexes?
neuronal networks in spinal cord integrating responses to produce coordinated pattern of muscle contraction through divergent and convergent connections
Explain the withdrawal and crossed-extension reflex
Nocioceptor (in foot) senses painful stimulus, sensory neuron relays signal to spinal cord. Neuron diverges, one pathway goes up to higher brain centres, another activates flexion reflex (excites flexors in leg, inhibits extensors). Crossed-extension reflex also occurs (extensors excited) to shift weight onto that side to maintain balance
How does the spinal region control reflexes?
There is a resting membrane potential, and a threshold needed to produce action potential. Spinal cord changes resting membrane potential. Can have tonic excitatory input to raise resting potential, means that stimulus input will be more likely to generate potential. Can also be modulated to decrease reflex sensitivity.
How are postural reflexes organized?
SLR, MLR, LLR –> short, medium, long latency responseintegrates response at different regionsSLR=spinal cord, nonfunctionalMLR = cerebellum, brain stemLLR = cortex (functional) modulates response, knows more about body state
Describe task dependent reflexes
depends on task. Table vs. holding cup, amount of extensor activity changes
Describe 7 neonatal reflexes and why we don’t see them with age, and the study showing off the smart spinal cord
1) Babinski= touch bottom of foot, toes fan out, big toe raised. test for spinal cord injury2) STARtle reflex = star response due to sudden visual/auditory stimulus, arms/legs outwards, upwards, inwards, fists/feet open and clench3) Tonic neck reflex = head turned to side –> fencer’s pose, arm and leg to side that head faces is extended, other side flexes4) Grasp reflex = pressure on palm/fingers, results in grasping action5) Swimming reflex = belly touches water/ground = rhythmic alternating contraction/extension of arms/legs6) walking reflex = feet in contact with surface = lift and plant feet7) Righting reflex = when sit baby up, attempt to keep head uprightStop seeing because cortical regions develop, start to have descending pathway modulation, also start to have more control over movement so no need for reflexFrog experiment –> apply stimulus to one area, spinal cord cut, spinal cord can still control muscle to wipe that area –> shows spinal integration and control of movement
What is a CPG, how is it controlled
neuron network in the spinal cord that generates rhythmic pattern of reciprocal flexion and extension in absence of sensory inputInitiated by MLR (mesoencephalic locomotor region). walking initiated. see hip proprioception, hip flexor is stretched, causes burst of flexion (swing phase). when foot lands, GTO senses load, sends signal through 1b afferents to maintain extensor activity through positive feedback loop, creates flexor stretch in opposite leg.Proven through cat –> flexion/extension alternate, sudden stretch of hip flexor causes abortion of extension, flexion triggered early
How do neurons project to the spinal cord?
medial or lateral pathwaysmedial=control basic posture, axial/proximal musclesreticulospinal, vestibulospinal, tectospinallateral = goal directed, voluntary movements, limb musclesrubrospinal, corticospinal
Describe 3 pathways
reticulospinal –> maintains posture and muscle tonevestibulospinal –> maintains balance, orientation of head/bodyrubrospinal –> excites neurons innervating proximal upper limb flexors
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Receives feedback, comparison of motor plan with actual responseInvolved in learning new motor skillsProduce smooth motion (timing)Coordinates groups of muscles with cerebral cortexMaintains equilibriumFine-tunes locomotor pattern by regulating timing/intensity of descending signals
How is the basal ganglia organized?
5 nuclei: substantia nigra, striatum caudate nucleus, putamen, subthalamic nuclei, globus pallidus No direct input to spinal cordReceives input to cerebral cortex, inputs to cerebral cortex through indirect pathways
List name and function of 4 basal loops
Occulomotor loop –> controls eye movementsMotor loop –> movement, links to primary motor cortex, premotor cortesxPrefrontal loop –> decision making, linked to DLPCLimbic loop –> related to emotions
What does the thalamus do?
connects regions
What is the function of the PPC?
Sensorimotor transformations –> integrate sensory input from different coordinate systems and convert to motor coordinates, reference frame suitable for motor centrePlanning, on-line control of movementSpatial maps/working memory
What are the different PPC regions and their function?
Parietal arm field –> retinotopic locations of spaces that can actually be reachedParietal eye field –> retinotopic location of objects, responds to auditory and visual inputparietal face field –> represents ultra near space of mouth/face through visual and tactile inputparietal grasp field –> shape information required to grasp objects
When are neurons in the PPC active?
During foreperiod –> planning movementMemory delay task –> PPC heavily active between cue and reach to plan movement
How does the cortex project to the motor neurons?
corticobulbar and corticospinal fibrescorticobulbar –> controls motor nuclei in brainstem for facial musclescorticospinal –> controls motor nuclei in spinal cord for voluntary control of trunk/distal limb muscles–> acts on spinal pathway or motoneuronsmost fibers cross at pyrimidal decussation for contralateral control
What is the function of the SMA?
supplementary motor area selects movement trajectories based on internal cuesinvolved with memoryimportant for bimanual movementsrole in learning sequences
What is the function of the premotor cortex
selects movement trajectories based on external cuesworks with basal gangliarole in decision makingSpatial choices experiment –> must plan for all trajectories, so heavily active before go signal, after go signal = burst to plan/select that trajectory. In one-target task, only has to plan for one trajectory, motor cortex neuron doesn’t fire until after go signal (no double hill)
What is the function of the motor cortex?
Provides somatotopic organizationexecutes and adapts movementsneurons in the same column activate synergistic muscles, therefore neurons in different columns can activate same muscle
How do individual motor cortex neurons affect force/direction of movement?
ex. neuron attached to flexor muscles.When flexor load applied, neuron fires to activate flexors and oppose movementwhen extensor load applied, neuron is silent b/c extension due to relaxation of antagonistNeurons fire different amount based on direction of movement, therefore movement is determined by resolution of vectors of the firing rate of groups of neurons
How does the cortex contribute to locomotion?
Motor cortex increased activity during step (enhanced muscle activity)PPC increase before step (motor planning, gait modification)
What does the DLPC do?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involved in spatial working memoryrole in decision making (how/when to move)sensorimotor transformation
Describe APAs
Anticipatory Postural Adjustmentspostural change before postural disturbance to offset movementmaintains equilibrium and stabilizes position (minimizes disturbance)Anticipates shift in centre of massHave a load–>unload tendency (kip-up) so COP has shift one way in order to shift the other way and thus make it easier for movement to occur (want to lift right leg, so shift onto right, then shift centre of mass to left to raise right leg. hip and shoulder shift to suport side, ankle shifts to moving side)APAs are context dependent. Voluntary movement generates APA, but having support negates APA. Similarly, if there is an external stimulus, action in stabilizers more as a reflexive movement, not a true APA. And if stability constraints help with movement (moving floor), APA is redundant and can create balance deficit
Describe reflex theory
Movements are due to reflex chaining (sequences of reflexes), reflexes are building blocks for behavioursstimulus-response
What are the limitations of reflex theory?
1) Reflex theory can’t account for voluntary movement - no external stimulus2) How does it describe very fast movements –> not enough time for sensory feedback to play role3) Can’t account for learning new movements –> perform different actions with different stimuli based on already learned rules4) Can’t account for different responses to same stimulus depending on context (overriding reflexes, scaling to meet task demand)
Describe motor program theory; define parameters, invariant features, and schema
Motor program theory says we don’t have stored motor commands for every action. Have generalized motor programs that generate motor commands. Motor programs are effector independent, can use sensory feedback to correct movement without affecting higher level program, errors reflected in movement can alter program and parameters. Motor program at lower level converts output from higher level to commands to motoneurons. Some programs govern discrete actions, complex movements then use programs to recruit these discrete programsMotor program controls class of actions (group of similar motor skills), performs same action in different circumstancesMotor program –> set of rules for generating motor commandsParameters –> features that change from one performance to another, change parameters = change behaviourInvariant features –> stay the same throughout class of actions regardless of parameters, defines motor programSchema = set of rules to provide basis for decision, representation of rules governing performance of skill in certain situation, facilitates selection of parameters
What is the evidence for motor program theory?
Typing keys = relatively equal percentage regardless of speedScaling movement of reaching = equal velocity curves regardless of distance –> shows extent of movement are preplanned
What is a limitation of motor program theory?
doesn’t account for complex movements
How can motor programs use sensory feedback?
If the movement duration is long enough, sensors can correct small perturbations without altering higher level motor program
How does motor program theory explain the walk-to-run transition?
Walk and running are two different classes of actions, with different invariant features. The transition equates to a change in the motor program. Person chooses to change motor programs
Describe Dynamic Action theory
Movement is self-organizing, based on interaction between individual and environment. New movements arise from a change in the control parameter that changes which attractor state is optimal
What are attractors, control parameters, and order parameters?
stable behavioural steady states –> minimal variation, optimal energyControl parameters are variables that increase or decrease and change the value of the order parameter (independent variable)Order parameters are values that are attached to attractor states that define the overall behaviour
Provide the evidence for dynamic action theory?
Bilateral finger movementsOrder parameter = the degrees (180 or 360)Attractor states = in phase or out of phase (defined by order parameter)Control parameter = speed of finger movementsAs control parameter increases, order parameter changes, and new stable behavioural state created
How does dynamic action theory discuss the walk-to-run transition?
speed is the control parameterrelative phase of legs (flexion/extension) is the order parameterattractor states = walking or runninggait change is the result of competition between the two attractor states
What is the role of sensory feedback and what are the issues of sensory feedback?
Inherent delays = takes time to receive and process and then act on sensory feedbackNoise –> information not perfectly accurate (going from 3D to 2D to 3D)Sensory feedback must be transformed into terms understood by motor systemsNeeds a reference signal, only indicates extent of movement deviation from intended performance
What are 3 types of noise, and 2 causes of noise, and the result of noise
sensor noise –> inaccurate sensory receptors, uncertainty in locationMotor noise –> noise in motor commands, variable movementsSensorimotor noise –> noise from combining sensory feedback and transformation to motor coordinatesCauses of noise: spontaneous action potentials generated by receptors/neurons, muscle fatigue = change in dischargeResults in lower accuracy and precision
What are the three types of internal models?
Cognitive model –> how objects work based on prior experienceInverse model –> calculates motor commands based on desired trajectory and knowledge of limb stateForward model –> calculates expected sensory feedback and limb state based on copy of motor command, predict behaviour of body, model causal relationship between actions and consequences
What are the two components of the inverse internal model?
Kinematic transformation –> Calculate limb trajectoriesDynamic transformation –> based on calculated trajectory, what are the joint trajectories (torques/muscle activations) required to perform the movement
What is the evidence for the forward internal model?
Grip force control predictionChange the amount of lift force and hand acceleration based on perceived/expected slipperiness
Describe the entire internal model
Start with estimation of where you are based on combination of actual and predicted sensory feedback, where the target isThis creates a difference vectorPlan limb and joint trajectories to reduce vector to 0, create a motor plan and convert to motor commands. Send an efference copy to the forward model, one to the muscles. Efference copy then predicts the sensory information it should receive, compares it to the actual sensory information, then can use the error in signal/expected signal to update the model. Sensory feedback then leads to new knowledge of limb state, can plan new movement
Discuss how state estimate is created
weighted average of actual and predicted sensory feedback. If sensors were 100% accurate, wouldn’t need sensory feedback because prediction would be perfectTemporary errors result in re-weighing, constant error requires update to the model
What is the evidence for internal models?
Force perturbation, prism glasses cause dynamic/kinematic adaptation and then we see aftereffects
How does internal models explain how the brain distinguishes between internal/external muscle stretch
Using predicted sensory feedback. External muscle stretch would lead to error between predicted and actual feedback, can then decide to act on it
How is movement constrained by physical means?
Adding mass to ankle/wrist leads to increased movement/magnitude in all: ankle = increase in arms, wrist = increase in other arm
What are the primary and secondary effects of neuromuscular disorders?
Created through a lesion in the descending pathway that results in primary/secondary effects and constrains movementPrimary = direct result of lesion –> paresis and spasticitySecondary = indirect result of lesion –> structural and functional changes to joints/muscles
What is paresis?
Weakness, inability to produce normal levels of forceReduced voluntary motor unit recruitment and inability to recruit motor units to generate torque
What is spasticity?
velocity-dependent exaggerated tendon-jerks in response to passive stretch. Increased hyperexcitability of stretch reflexIncreased alpha-motoneuron excitability
What are the 4 coordination problems
Activation/Sequencing –> change in synergies, co-activationTiming –> reaction time increase, increased movement time, trouble terminating movementScaling –> inappropriate force production, difficulties assessing distance
What are the secondary effects?
Contractures –> permanent shortening of the musclemuscle atrophychange in muscle fibre typedegenerative joint disease
What is a stroke?
Restricted blood flow to the brain causing cell damageCharacterized through paralysis or paresis of opposite side of lesion
What are some of the impairments due to stroke?
decrease in fast-twitch fibresdecrease in motor unitsdecreased firing frequencyincreased noiseslower motor conduction velocityimpaired standing balance
What are the statistics for stroke?
50% fall, 50% of falls due to walking, 50% can walk independently after 1 month, 90% can walk independently after 3 months
What are the results of impaired balance?
more fallsdelayed postural reflexes –> evidence through EMG graphAbnormal sequencing of muscle activityankle torque in paretic side reduced
Describe the upper extremities following a stroke and the theory behind constraint-induced therapy
Upper extremities permanently flexed, inability to generate torque, prolonged time to generate torqueLowing sensory/motor use in one side leads to learned non-use. Try to prevent this. constrain the non-paretic limb (in splint and sling), force body to use paretic limb, combine with intensive paretic limb physical therapy (6hrs/day)See improvements in plasticity, motor performance, motor limb strength, see retention effects tooFirst performed on monkeys following induced lesion
What is the evidence for increased plasticity?
Measure brain plasticity through TMSSee larger area that produces stimulus to muscle when stimulated by TMS (motor output area)See that larger potentials generated (motor evoked potential)
Describe the exercise interventions designed by Marigold
Weightshifting/stretching (tai chi, standing from floor) group vs agility group (stepping, sit to stand, line walking)Agility group has greater retention, faster relexes in paretic limb, better functional mobility (timed up and go)Fewer falls, fewer falls after training
Describe Parkinson’s disease
slow progressive hypokinetic movement disordercaused by impairment of neurons in substantia nigraLose ability to produce dopamine (coordination)
What are the 4 major effects of Parkinsons
Resting tremor –> first manifestation, pill-rollingrigidity of trunk/core –> resistance to passive movement, not velocity dependent, can be cogwheel or leadpipebradykinesia (slowness of movement) –> problems initiating and executing motor actpoor balance –> shuffling gait, turning en bloc (lots of small steps), decreased arm swing
Describe the gait effects of Parkinsons and how these can be resolved
gait freezing (akinesia), inability to move feet in tight spaces or initiating gaitUse lines, music, improve optic flow, have targetsEffect best if you can see lower limbs
Describe the different types of spinal cord injuries
Complete –> loss of all movement/ sensation, both sides equally affectedIncomplete –> may affect one side more than the other, some sensation of movement in unmoveable limbsParaplegia –> loss of sensation/movement in legs and part of trunkQuadriplegia –> loss of sensation/movement below neck
Describe the relationship between spasticity and SCI
exaggeration of normal reflexLack of range of motion exercises means that spasticity triggered even for small movements, less flexibillty
How can SCI be rehabilitated (contemporary and modern)
Traditional –> bodyweight supported treadmillstill have CPGs to produce movement, improves walking function, can try to regenerate circuitry in ascending pathways. Doesn’t regrow descending pathways because you don’t need full body controlModern –> overground training occurs in mice. Supports bodyweight against gravity, does not provide any forward locomotion assistanceLeads to initiation of locomotion, can go up stairs and over obstacles –> actively initiate locomotion and engage cortical neurons, remodel descending pathwaysboth method leads to ability to initiate full weight-bearing locomotion
What are the 5 characteristics of Skill learning?
Improvement (getting better), consistency (less variable), stability (perturbations have less influence on performance), persistence (retention of improvement), adaptability (different contexts)
How do you assess learning
performance curves, transfer tests (novel context or skill variation), retention tests
What are the different performance curves?
Negative acceleration, positive acceleration, linear, s-shapedAssesses improvement and consistency
What do retention and transfer tests assess?
Retention: persistenceTransfer: adaptability and stability
How can practice performance misrepresent learning?
Low correlation between early and later practiceperformance plateaus due to psychological factors, new strategy being developed
What are the two types of long term memory?
Procedural (learning new skills before consolidation creates interference) and declarative
Describe the 3 stages of Fitts and Posner
Cognitive –> figuring out what to do, how to do it. Large, variable, frequent errorsAssociative–> associate environmental cues with movements required. fewer errors, refiningAutonomous –> after many years, expert. Can diagnose own errors. automatic, habitual, don’t consciously think about it, can dual-task, instruction important here
Describe Gentile’s two-stage model
Initial stage –> acquire movement coordination pattern, discover regulatory/non-regulatory environmental featuresLater stage –> develop capability of adaptability, economy of movement, consistency
What are the different learner goals?
Closed skills –> fixation, repetition of basic movement coordination pattern correctly, consistently, efficiently (change parameters)Open skills –> variation of basic movements, diversify to meet different environmental contexts (change parameters/invariant features)
What are the 4 types of info available to learner?
initial body conditionsparametersaugmented feedback about movement outcomesensory feedback
What is the recall and recognition schema?
Recall: relationship between initial conditions, movement outcomes, and parameterLearn if want this movement outcome, here are the parameters that should be selectedRecogntion: relationship between initial conditions, movement outcomes, and sensory feedback “given this sensory feedback, here’s what happened” use to learn what went wrong, what movement should feel like
How does performance change in rate of improvement? what is the evidence for this?
slows down over time, negative acceleration usually seenSplit belt treadmill –> those with instruction given adapt fastest, those distracted slowest (attention plays role in rate of learning)
How does performance change in movement co-ordination
Originally freeze segments, solve DOF problemDetermine appropriate muscle activation pattern, limb configurations, trajectoriesOnce expert, start to unfreeze segments to produce smooth, fluid motion
How does performance change in muscles used?
Originally very inefficient (co-contractors to solve DOF), timing offReorganize to take advantage of environment
How does performance change in energy cost
Eventually get to minimal energy expendedEvidence: metabolic consumption of O2 while walking (preferred frequency)
How does performance change in visual selective attention?
Originally vision directed inappropriately, focus on non-regulatory features, fixate on wrong things, look at too many thingsLearn to direct attention to regulatory featuresEvidence: expert soccer goalkeepers fixate on ball longer
How does performance change in conscious attention demands
Over time, less conscious attention needed
How does performance change in error detection
with time, can detect and correct own errors (autonomous stage)Understand why error occurred, not just that error occurred
How does performance change in brain activity? What is the evidence of this
Brain plasticity increasesPPC active early (recognition of error) and cerebellum progressively increases activity (updating model)Evidence: cerebellum stimulation improves adaptation during split belt (anodal or cathodal stimulation through tCDS)PPC during reaching in force field shows no after-effect when blocked by TMS, therefore no transfer occurred so it wasn’t learned as wellMotor cortex shows worse retention when blocked during reach movement
What are the 3 types of transfer of learning?
Positive (learning of one skill improves learning of second) negative (learning previous skill interferes)Zero (no benefit or interference)
What is transfer of learning used for?
skills performed in different environments, rehab, sequencing of learning, instructional methods, assessing effectiveness of practice
What is the identical elements theory
positive transfer due to similarity between task components or context
What is the transfer-appropriate processing theory?
Transfer occurs when the same cognitive processing resources used
When and why does negative transfer occur
When: need to learn new response to old stimulus (environmental context similar, movement contexts different), effects are temporaryWhy: difficulty altering perception-reaction
What is bilateral transfer and why does it occur?
Better performance of skill after learning it in contralateral limbMotor control hypothesis: skill is learned in non-specific way, can be applied to opposite limbCognitive hypothesis: applies knowledge acquired to opposite limb
How does demonstration affect performance? Why does this occur?
Experts should correctly demonstrate skill, learners should watch other learners do it improperly (requires problem solving)Due to mirror neurons, that activate in the same way that it would if learner was actually performing movement (simulation), encodes intentions and spatial positionsEvidence: observational learning in force field –> those who watch with correct force field do better, those who watch opposite force field do worst
How should demonstration be applied?
Should be demonstrated first, then interspersed as neededEvidence: demo and practice blocks
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Verbal instruction can hinder performance –> influences strategies, removes discovery learning
What are the different types of motor learning feedback?
Sensory (task-intrinsic) feedbackAUGMENTED FEEDBACKKnowledge of results –> outcome of skillKnowledge of performance –> movement characteristics that lead to performance outcome
When is augmented feedback useful?
When sensory feedback isn’t available, reliable, or can’t be used appropriately due to lack of experienceUse performance bandwidths –> only give feedback when performance outside certain rangeConcurrent –> while person is performing skillTerminal –> after skill completed
Should you provide info about errors vs correct aspects, and qualitative vs quantitative?
Errors –> multiple correct ways to perform action, therefore point out things that are wrongQualitative better for beginners
When should you provide KP vs KR
KR: confirm own assessments, when outcome can’t be determined, motivate, want learners to problem solveKP: skills performed according to specific criteria, complex co-ordination must be improved, KR is redundant with sensory feedback
What are the different types of KP?
Verbal –> descriptive vs prescriptive (better for beginners)Video –> only if performance features easily visibleComputer modelling (Movement kinematics)Biofeedback –> no retention
What is the up/down side of Concurrent feedback?
negative learning effect –> substitute feedback for sensory feedbackdual task effectPoint out sensory feedback features not easily available
What are the two time intervals of KR?
KR delay –> interval between skill completion and providing KRpost-KR interval –> between delivery of augmented feedback and initiation of next trial
How often should augmented feedback be provided and how can you reduce how often it’s provided?
Not all the time –> guidance hypothesis: should be used to guide performance, not relied onPerformance bandwidths, only when learner asks, summary after certain number of trials
What is the difference between variability and specificity?
Variability: variety of movement and context characteristicsGentille –> learner needs to experience variations of reg/non-reg characteristicsDynamic pattern –> explore perceptual motor workspace to discover optimal solution to DOF problemSpecificity –> similarity between practice situations and transfer test –> sensory feedback, performance context (environmental familiarity), cognitive processingVariability = movement characteristics, specificity - practice/test context
How can practice be varied?
Blocked, random, serial –> random is bestHas contextual interference effect during practice but better performance during testContextual interference –> memory/performance disruption from performing skill/variations of skill within contextEvidence: badminton serves
Why is random best?
More strategies learned, elaborate motor memory representationEngage in more problem solving
How does schema theory discuss practice variability?
learn basic movement pattern first, then vary task to enhance parameters selected
How can practice be distributed? which is better?
Massed –> amount of rest between trials/sessions very shortDistributed –> amount of rest relatively long (better)Overlearning –> continued practice beyond amount for certain criteria, can lead to diminishing returns
What is the difference between complexity and organization?
Complexity = # of components of the skill, amount of info processingOrganization = spatial and temporal interdependence of movement components
What is the difference between whole and part practice, and when should you use each?
Whole practice –> practice entire skill, use for low complexity, high organizationPart practice –> practice individual components –> use for low organization, high complexity
How can part practice be approached?
fractionization –> split up arm/legSegmentation –> practice one part, then put it all together, then practice next partAttention focus –> practice entire skill, but focus on certain componentsSimplification –> reduce difficulty of parts of skills (reduce object difficulty, attention demands, movement speeds, increase cues, sequence skill progression, use simulators)
How can motor learning be improved?
Exercise –> post exercise best (boosts plasticity, better consolidation)Training –> slip perturbation
