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1st Semester > SD1 > Flashcards

SD1 Flashcards

1
Q

STRUCTURE OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT

A
  • Lumen
  • Mucosa
  • Submucosa
  • Muscularis propria
  • Adevntitia (serosa)
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2
Q

MUCOSA

A
  1. Epithelium
  2. Lamina propria
  3. Muscularis mucosae
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3
Q

ENTEROCYTE

A

Simple columnar epithelial cells found in small intestine. Specialised for absorption.

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4
Q

SUBMUCOSAL/ MEISSNER PLEXUS

A

Collection of nerves containing Dogiel cells with function to enervate cells in epithelial level.

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5
Q

MYENTERIC/ AUERBACH PLEXUS

A

Major nerve supply to GI tract & controls GI tract motility.

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6
Q

OESOPHAGEOGASTRIC SPHINCTER

A

Prevents reflux of stomach acid in oesophagus.

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7
Q

PYLORIC SPHINCTER

A

Controls release of food between stomach and duodenum.

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8
Q

ILEOCAECAL SPHINCTER

A

Controls smooth muscle between small and large intestine.

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9
Q

INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER.

A

Retains faeces in the upper anal canal.

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10
Q

PEYER’S PATCHES

A

Organised lymphoid follicles found in lowest part of small intestine used for surveillance of the lumen & immune response from the mucosa.

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11
Q

BARRATT’S OESOPHAGUS

A

Disease causing change of epithelium from stratifies squamous to gastric due to repeated damage from acid reflux. Indicates higher risk of cancer. Biopsies taken.

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12
Q

ADDITIONAL STOMACH MUSCLE LAYER

A
  1. Outer longitudinal
  2. Inner oblique muscle
  3. Inner circular.
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13
Q

MUCOUS CELL

A

Found at the surface of gastric pit in the stomach & produce mucus and bicarbonate to protect stomach from acid digestion.

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14
Q

PARIETAL (OXYNTIC) CELL

A

Lower than mucous cells found in gastric gland in Muscularis mucosa produce HCl & intrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor vital for absorption of B12 vitamin.

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15
Q

CHIEF (PEPTIC) CELLS

A

Found in gastric pits in stomach & produce enzymes to break down food such as pepsinogen- converted to pepsin.

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16
Q

ENTEROENDOCRINE CELL

A

Produce hormones in stomach such as gastrin & serotonin

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17
Q

PLICAE CIRCULARES

A

Large valvular flaps within small intestine composed of mucous membrane (mucosa and submucosa). Not obliterated when intestine is distended.

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18
Q

PANETH CELLS

A

Large cytoplasmic granules found in small intestine epithelium used to protect from infection.

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19
Q

INTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER

A

Smooth muscle at the end of the rectum with involuntary control.

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20
Q

EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER

A

Skeletal muscle under voluntary control in the anal canal.

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21
Q

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

A

Mouth. Oesophagus. Stomach. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum). Large intestine (colon, rectum).

Accessory structures include: salivary glands, teeth, tongue, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.

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22
Q

BLOOD MEASUREMENTS

A

6L = 8% of body mass
2/3 of body mass is intracellular fluid (28L)
1/3 of body mass extracellular (14L)
80% of ECF outside cells

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23
Q

BLOOD CHARACTERISTICS

A

1.8X thicker than water
38C temp.
Alkaline pH
Colour dependent on O2 content.

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24
Q

HAEMATOCRIT

A

The proportion of blood that is cellular.

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25
Q

BUFFY COAT

A

White blood cells and platelets.

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26
Q

CELLULAR COMPONENT OF BLOOD

A

Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophils, Red blood cells, Platelets, Monocytes, Lymphocyte

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27
Q

GRANULAR LEUCOCYTE

A

Neutrophil (40-75%)
Eosinophil (5%)
Basophil (0.5%)

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28
Q

AGRANULAR LEUCOCYTE

A

Lymphocyte (20-50%)

Monocytes (1-5%)

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29
Q

NEUTROPHIL

A

Leave circulatory system in response to tissue damage. Phagocytose invading organisms with enzymes. Increased in bacterial infection.

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30
Q

EOSINOPHIL

A

Combats effects of histamine and phagocytose antigen antibody complexes.

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31
Q

BASOPHIL

A

Produce heparin, histamine and serotonin. Intensify inflammatory responses

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32
Q

LYMPHOCYTE

A

Immune response produces B, T, natural killer cells. Increased in viral infections

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33
Q

MONOCYTES

A

Phagocytosis, rarely elevated- in tissues called macrophages.

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34
Q

PLASMA

A

91.5% Water, 7% Proteins and 1.5% other salutes (electrolytes, nutrients, gasses, hormones, vitamins)

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35
Q

SERUM

A

Blood plasma minus clotting agent eg in vaccination.

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36
Q

OSMORALITY

A

Concentration of solute within solvent.

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37
Q

ALBUMIN

A

Globular proteins found in blood plasma synthesised in the liver for non-specific transport of non soluble components.

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38
Q

GLOBULIN

A

Proteins found in blood plasma used for selective transport such as sex hormones.

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39
Q

FIBRINOGEN

A

Proteins found in blood plasma used in clotting.

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40
Q

TOTAL PLASMA PROTEIN CONCCENTRATION

A

Affected by change in:
Protein synthesis
Protein removal
Volume in which they are found.

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41
Q

EXUDATE

A

EXTRACELLULAR fluid collection rich in protein and cells. Appears cloudy and found in inflammation (spots).

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42
Q

TRANSUDATE

A

EXTRACELLULAR fluid collection- ultrafiltrate of plasma with little protein. Appears clear and found in swelling.

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43
Q

PURULENT EXUDATE

A

Much like exudate but rich in neutrophils found with parenchyma cells debris. Found with infection (spots).

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44
Q

CO-OPERATIVE BINDING

A

Takes place within RBC- when 1 O2 molecule binds onto Hb it makes it easier for the other 3 o2 to bind.

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45
Q

HbA

A

Adult Hb:
2A and 2B chains.
Some HbF found.

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46
Q

HbF

A

Fatal Hb changed at 7 months.

2A and 2Y chains.

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47
Q

TOTAL Hb AND O2 IN BLOOD

A 
Hb= 150g/L
O2= 197ml/L
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48
Q

METHAEMOGLOBINEMIA

A

Blue blood, short of breath, seizures and behavioural issues.
Too much MetHb which does not carry O2 (Fe3+).

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49
Q

HAEMOGLOINOPATHY

A

Alteration in genetically determined molecular structure of Hb such as sickle cell anaemia.

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50
Q

RED BLOOD CELL DISTRIBUTION WIDTH- RDW

A

Index of RBC volumes indicating sizes and populations of cells.

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51
Q

STAINED BLOOD FILM

A

Detects variations in cell sizes and shape. Diagnosies anaemia.

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52
Q

RETICULOCYTE COUNT

A

Indicates excessive RBC. Classifies anaemia.

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53
Q

MEAN CELL HAEMOGLOBIN- MCH

A

Hb level/ RBC count
Measures amount of Hb in each RBC.
Used for patients with iron deficiency.

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54
Q

MEAN CORPUSCLE HAEMOGLOBIN CONCENTRATION- MCHC

A

Approx. 33%

Can indicate abnormal RBC shapes.

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55
Q

WRIGHTS STAIN

A

Gimsa stain + methylene blue.

Detects viable cells used in spinal tap.

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56
Q

RETICULOCYTE

A

Immature RBC.

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57
Q

MYELOID LINEAGE

A

RBC, granulocytic cells, megakaryocytes.

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58
Q

LYMPHOID LINEAGE

A

B and T lymphocyte. Start in BM but completed in lymphatic tissue. Used for immune functions and defence mechanisms.

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59
Q

PROGENITOR CELLS

A

Cannot reproduce and are committed to forming blood type.

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60
Q

PRECURSOR CELLS

A

Called blasts- develop into mature formed cells.

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61
Q

ERYTHROPOIETIN (EPO)

A

Released from kidneys to stimulate RBC production.

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62
Q

THROMBOPOIETIN- TPO

A

Released from liver stimulating platelet formation.

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63
Q

COLONY STIMULATING FACTORS/ INTERLEUKINS

A

Stimulate WBC formation.

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64
Q

ANAEMIA

A

More RETICULOCYTE in blood stream.

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65
Q

…CYTOSIS

A

Increased number.

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66
Q

…PENIA

A

Reduced numbers.

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67
Q

THROMOCYTOPENIA

A

Reduced number of platelets. Causes problems with clotting. Treatment of Thrombopoetin- sti,ulating platelet growth.

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68
Q

PLURIPOTENT

A

Having the capacity to develop into more than one cell type.

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69
Q

MAST CELL

A

Generated from common myeloid progenitor. Similar to basophil in shape and size. Used in combatting allergies and characterised by dark blue stain.

70
Q

ORDER OF FREQUENCY OF LEUCOCYTES

A

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas.

71
Q

DEGRANULATION

A

Release of toxic enzymes by cytoplasmic granules in neutrophils.

72
Q

NEUTROPHIL EXTRACELLULAR TRAPS

A

Webs of fibres and enzymes trapping and killing microbes. Must be activated and released by neutrophil.

73
Q

ANGIOGENESIS

A

Blood vessel generation and remodelling by basophils.

74
Q

HUMORAL IMMUNITY

A

Immunity by antibodies secreted by B-cells.

75
Q

CELLULAR IMMUNITY

A

Immunity mediated by T lymphocytes.

76
Q

ABO BLOOD GROUPING

A

A,B,AB,O
Autosomal gene located on chromosome 9.
A&B dominant over O.

77
Q

RHESUS FACTOR

A

RHESUS +ve express antigen D. Rhesus -ve do not express antigen. Rhesus antibodies- IgG

78
Q

ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS

A

Haemolytic disease during pregnancy. First pregnancy not affected however 2nd pregnancy anti RH antibodies in mothers blood will cause problem if foetus has Rh+ blood. Foetus gets anaemia.

79
Q

SEROLOGY

A

Detection of ABO antigens. Blood mixed with different anti-Serra solutions containing antibodies.

80
Q

PLATELETS

A

Enclosed in plasma membrane, containing organelles but agranular. Known as megakaryocytes. Removed by macrophages in liver spleen.

81
Q

GRANULAR COMPONENTS OF PLATELETS

A

Clotting factors/ ADP&ATP/ Ca/Serotonin/prostaglandins/lysosomes/ glycogen.

82
Q

PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR (PDGF)

A

Hormone found in platelets causing proliferation o vascular endothelium, and smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to help repair damaged blood vessel walls.

83
Q

PRIMARY HAEMOSTASIS

A

Formation of primary platelet plug using vasculature, endothelium and platelets. Happens quickly.

84
Q

SECONDARY HAEMOSTASIS

A

Formation of fibrin through coagulation cascade to clot blood.

85
Q

VASCULAR SPASM

A

When damaged smooth muscle cells vasoconstriction to slow down blood loss. Limits blood loss stopping bleeding profusely. Endothelium basement membrane exposed & collagen releases factors for platelet plug.

86
Q

PLATELET PLUG

A

Primary Haemostasis.

  1. Platelet adhesion using Von Willebrand Factor.
  2. Platelet release reaction using ADP, serotonin and TA2
  3. Platelet Aggregattion using ADP.
87
Q

VON WILBRAND FACTOR

A

Attaches platelets to blood vessel endothelium in platelet adhesion- primary haemostasis.

88
Q

THROMBOXANE A2

A

This and serotonin cause vasoconstriction in platelet release reaction of primary haemostasis.

89
Q

THROMBIN

A

Needs IIb/IIia site for fibrinogen for platelet aggregation- primary haemostasis.

90
Q

CLOT

A

Network of insoluble protein fibres called fibrin. Solid nature.

91
Q

EXTRINSIC PATHWAY

A

In Vivo pathway used for blood clotting. Tissue factor created forming clotting factor cascade. Happens in seconds. Forms prothrombinase.

92
Q

INTRINSIC FACTOR

A

Coagulation in vitro (in blood) forms prothrombinase.

93
Q

PROTHROMBINASE

A

Common factor of clotting in fibrin for clotting of blood using pathways. Produced from thrombin to make more thrombin (positive feedback). Activates platelets to reinforce aggregation. (Irreversible).

94
Q

PROSTACYCLIN

A

Prostaglandin produced by endothelium inhibiting platelets sticking and inhibits thromboxane a2 stopping clotting.

95
Q

FIBRINOLYSIS

A
  1. Plasmid
  2. Antithrombin 3 with heparin
  3. 5 Heparin sulphate
  4. Activated protein C (APC)
96
Q

ABNORMAL BLEEDING FACTORS

A
  1. Coagulation factor abscence.
  2. Platelet absence.
  3. Connective tissue disorder.
97
Q

DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION

A

Consequence of many disorders releasing procoagulant material causing clots. Results from increased rate of platelet destruction. May be from damage to endothelium. Immature platelets in blood leading to extensive bleeding. From sepsis/surgery/birth.

98
Q

LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS

A

Hunger centre.

99
Q

VENTROMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS

A

Satiety centre.

100
Q

LEPTIN

A

Hunger causing hormone- obesity overproduced this causing overstimulation. Increases neuropeptide Y and decreases melanocortin.

101
Q

NEUROPEPTIDE Y

A

Increase food intake and reduce energy expenditure.

102
Q

MELANOCORTIN NEURON

A

From satiety centre and deceased food intake and increases energy expenditure.

103
Q

NUTRITION

A

Process of nourishing- process by which living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and replacement of tissues.

104
Q

DIET

A

Usual food and drink a person consumes.

105
Q

DIETETICS

A

Study of nutrition and how it relates to health.

106
Q

MACRONUTRIENTS

A

Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat: energy yielding nutrients.

107
Q

MICRONUTRIENTS

A

Vitamins, minerals, water.

108
Q

ESTIMATED AVERAGE REQUIREMENTS (EARs)

A

Estimate of average requirement of energy needed by group of people- 50% fit this.

109
Q

REFERENCE NUTRIENT INTAKES (RNIs)

A

Amount of nutrient enough to ensure needs of nearly all group-97.5% people meet this.

110
Q

LOWER REFERENCE NUTRIENT INTAKE (LRNIs)

A

Amount of nutrient needed enough for only small number of people that have requirements-2.5% people

111
Q

SAFE INTAKE

A

Safe limit of nutrients/ insufficient evidence.

112
Q

CATEGORIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

A
  1. Simple sugars: monosaccharides/ disaccharides
  2. Oligosaccharides (polymers of mono)
  3. Polysaccharides: Starch and non-starch.
113
Q

OLIGOSACCHARIDE

A

3/4 Monosaccharides.
Mostly not digested- fuel for intestinal bacteria and mucosal cells. Found in glycoproteins and lipids
Give you gas.

114
Q

STARCH

A

Storage for plant CHO

Made of amylose and amylopectin (branch in every 30th)

115
Q

GLYCOGEN

A

Main form of glucose in mammalian muscle and liver.

Similar to amylopectin (10th branch).

116
Q

DIGESTION OF STARCH

A

Glucose, maltose and isomaltose.

117
Q

GLYCAEMIC INDEX

A 
Measure of extent and speed in which CHO are digested and absorbed. 
1= rapid digestion 
0= slow digestion
Simple sugars- High GI
Plant sugars- low GI
118
Q

LIPID

A

Made up of fatty acids

119
Q

LIPIDS

A

Made up of fatty acids

120
Q

LIPIDS

A

Made up of fatty acids
Over 40 found in nature
Categorised into saturated and unsaturated.

121
Q

CIS/TRANS

A

CIS-nutritionally important

122
Q

CIS/TRANS

A

CIS-nutritionally important

TRANS- undesirable in diet- from deep fat frying.

123
Q

TRIACYLGLYCEROL

A

Found in oils and fats

124
Q

PHOSPHOLIPID

A

Adipose tissue- major constituents of cell membranes.

125
Q

STEROID

A

Also sterols, stanols- not metabolically important for source of energy.

126
Q

CLASSIFICATION OFF DIETARY LIPID

A
  1. Triacylglycerols
127
Q

CLASSIFICATION OF. DIETARY LIPID

A
  1. Triacylglycerols
  2. Phospholipids
  3. Steroids/sterols/stanols
  4. Vitamins A,D,E,K
128
Q

NSAIDs

A

Cox-1 and COX-2 inhibited by Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Help with immune response.

129
Q

HDL

A

Collect cholesterol from the body’s tissues and bring back to liver- good cholesterol.

130
Q

LDL

A

Carry cholesterol from liver to cells referred to bad cholesterol.

131
Q

VLDL

A

Carry newly synthesised triaglycerol from liver to adipose tissue.

132
Q

IDL

A

Intermediate between VLDL and LDL. Not usually detectable in blood.

133
Q

CHYLOMICRONS

A

Carry triglycerides from intestines to liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue.

134
Q

PROTEIN DIGESTION

A
  1. Endopeptidases hydrolyse proteins to smaller peptides.

2. Exopeptidases: hydrolyse. To di- and tri- peptides.

135
Q

LIPID SOLUBLE VITAMINS

A

A,D,E,K

136
Q

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN

A

B,H,C

137
Q

VITAMIN A

A

Found in Eggs/meat/dairy/carrots

138
Q

VITAMIN A

A

Eggs/Meat/Dairy/Carrots
Used in vision and growth
Deficiency causes colour vision, dark adaption, night blindness.

139
Q

NYCTALOPIA

A

Night blindness caused by vit A deficiency.

140
Q

XEROPHTHALMIA

A

Dryness and thickening of the cornea and conjunctiva leading to blindness. Cause of vit a deficiency.

141
Q

VIT A

A

CHOLECALCIFEROL

142
Q

VITAMIN D

A

CHOLECALIFEROL
Synthesised by body via UV light. Also formed from cholesterol. Found in cheese/butter/sun
Functions: stimulation of intestinal calcium absorption. Regulation of insulin.
Deficieency is rickets.

143
Q

VITAMIN K

A

Coagulation factor. Co-factor for four proteins in liver involved in blood coagulation. Deficiency rare in diets but can increase blood clotting.

144
Q

VITAMIN E

A

Found in cell membranes
Protects membrane lipids from peroxidation
Natural antioxidant.
Hard to have deficiency.

145
Q

HAEMOCYTOMETER

A

Thick glass microscope, counting chamber,
3x3 divided into nine squares- used for counting white blood cells.
Centre square divided into 25 squares and each square divided into 16 squares.

146
Q

ATP IN GLUCOSE

A

38 ATP produced most in one glucose molecule.

147
Q

GLYCOLYSIS

A

Pathway one of carbohydrate metabolism.
Anaerobic process and splits glucose into 2x pyruvate.
Small amount of energy produced- 2ATP and 2NADH.

148
Q

STAGE 1 GLYCOLYSIS

A

Rearrangement of glucose into Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. (Energy consuming. )

149
Q

GLYCOLYSIS STAGE 2

A

Converts G-3-P to pyruvate (energy producing. )

150
Q

HEXOKINASE

A

First step of glycolysis.

Glucose transformed into G-6-P by ATP.

151
Q

PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE

A

Step 3 of glycolysis.
Fructose 6 Phosphate transformed into Fructose 1,6, biphosphate using this enzyme.
Uses ATP.

152
Q

PYRUVATE KINASE

A

Final step of glycolysis.

Synthesis of of pyruvate releases 2ATP.

153
Q

CORI CYCLE

A

Pyruvate recycled in the liver from lactate to glucose for muscles.

154
Q

GLUCONEOGENESIS

A

Takes place in liver when glycogen depleted. Forms glucose from non-CHO precursors.

155
Q

3 ENZYMES USED IN GLUCONEOGENESIS

A
  1. Pyruvate carboxylate & PEP carboxykinase
    - changes pyruvate back to PEP
  2. fructose 1,6,- biphosphotase.
    - changes fructose 1,6 Biphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.
  3. Glucose-6-phosphotase.
    - changes G-6-P to glucose.
156
Q

TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYLE

A

KREBS CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE

157
Q

TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYLE

A

KREBS CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Mitochondrion
Catalyses pyruvate to CO2.

158
Q

PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE

A

Enzyme used for entry to TCA cycle. Pyruvate- Acetyl coA(2C).

159
Q

PRODUCTS OF TCA CYCLE

A

Per cycle:
2CO2
3NADH
1GTP.

160
Q

STEPS OF TCA CYCLE

A
  1. Pyruvate-acetyl co A (2C)
  2. Acetyl co A+OAA- citrate (6C)
  3. 3 oxidation= NADH and one oxidation= fadh2
  4. OAA regenerate and cycle begins again.
161
Q

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

A

Mitochondrial intermembrane space.
Pumping H+ through inner membrane.
5 complexes.

162
Q

COMPLEX I OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

A

NADH-NAD

Using CoEnzyme Q: 4H+ moved through.

163
Q

COMPLEX III OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

A

BEFORE COMPLEX 2
E- from co-enzyme Q transferrred to cytochrome C
4H+ move across membrane.

164
Q

COMPLEX II OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

A

Succinate dehydrogenase move E- to FADH2.

No protons pumped by E- moved to COMPLEX III

165
Q

COMPLEX IV OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.

A

CYTOCHROME OXIDASE enzyme drives 2H+ through membrane. Hydrolysis happens here reducing O2 to water.

166
Q

COMPLEX V OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.

A

ATP SYNTHASE pushes protons through proton channel turning ADP into ATP.
Proton gradient.

167
Q

PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

A

Alternate pathway for glucose when no ATP generated. Produces NADH ffor anabolic processes.

168
Q

OXIDATIVE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

A

Glucose-6-phosphate —Ribulose-5-phosphate
Produces 2NADPH and co2
Takes place in liver.

169
Q

NON-OXIDATIVE PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

A

Ribs lose-5-phosphate — ribose-5-phosphate/ xylose-5-phosphate.
Can be converted into glycolysis intermediates.

170
Q

GLYCOGENESIS

A

FORMATION OF GLYCOGEN

  1. G-6-P —- G-1-P
  2. G-1-P —- UDP GLUCOSE
  3. UDP GLUCOSE —- GLYCOGEN + UDP. (BRANCHING ENZYME USED )
171
Q

GLYCOGENOLYSIS

A

Glycogen phosphorylase releases G-1-P.

Debranching enzyme removes branches so G-1-P can enter glycolysis.

172
Q

MCARDLES DISEASES (GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE TYPE V)

A

Genetic deficiency of muscle glycogen phosphorylase.

Fatigue, muscle cramps

1st Semester (3 decks)

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