Scientific Processes 2 Flashcards
what are demand characteristics?
demand characteristics
subtle hints that make the participant aware of what the experimenter predicts or hopes to find; this motivates the participant to conform to the experimenter’s expectations.
why must demand characteristics be controlled?
demand characteristics
with the presence of DC, it becomes harder to say if the IV is responsible for the change in the DV or if the participant’s altered behavior played a role -> lowers internal validity
- also lowers external as cannot be generalised.
how can demand characteristics be controlled?
demand characteristics
- deception: telling ppts study is about something its not (e.g. Asch 1951)
- use independent groups design/single blind trial (unsure of which condition they’re in)
what is the Hawthorne Effect?
demand characteristics
a tendency in some to alter their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
what are investigator effects?
demand characteristics
the ways in which the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave in the study.
how may an investiagator display investigator effects?
demand characteristics
- giving subtle clues/hints unconciously
- personal attributes e.g. sex, age, ethnicity.
how can investigator effects be reduced?
demand characteristics
- using a standardised procedure
- leaving allocating up to chance (random allocation)
- double blind trials: both ppts and investigators know the aim, only the one in charge who doesn’t see the ppts.
what are ethics?
ethics
moral codes that guide behaviour
what responsibility do psychologists have?
ethics
to conduct their research in a way that will prevent psychological, physical or cultural harm
what are UK psychologists expected to do?
ethics
to design and carry out research that follows the set ethical guidelines outlined by British Psychological Society (BPS)
what are the 4 general principles outlined by the BPS?
ethics
- respect for autonomy + dignity of persons
- scientific integrity
- social responsbility
- max. benefit, min. harm
what are the 6 ethical issues?
ethics
- informed consent
- deception
- right to withdraw
- confidentiality
- protection from harm
- debriefing
what is the informed consent guideline?
ethics
all ppts must be made aware of the aim, procedure and consequeces of the research and give their consent to partake after this.
what is the deception guideline?
ethics
researchers should not deliberately withhold information from ppts, else they cannot iev full informed consent.
- however sometimes needed to avoid DC
what is the right to withdraw guideline?
ethics
ppts must be told they are free to leave the study at anytime and are under no obligation to stay
what is the confidentiality guideline?
ethics
ppts data should be kept and not shared; when published, it should not include the ppt’s identity or details that could lead to identification
what is the protection from harm guideline?
ethics
the researcher is responsible for designing research that doesn’t cause any type of harm - ppts should leave the same way they arrived.
what is the debriefing guideline?
ethics
process of revealing to ppts tany withhled information - ensures ppts leave unaffected.
how could ethical issues be dealt with?
ethics
- if revealing true aim risks DC, gathering informed consent an alternative way
- if study needs deception, cost benefit analysis conducted by an ethics committee
- debriefing
what are the alternative ways of gathering informed consent?
ethics
- Prior General Consent - given a long list of features of research but unclear what will be in their study
- Reteroactive Consent - ppts asked for consent after the study, if they say no, data destroyed
- Presumptive Consent - ask a group similar to ppts, if they say yes, we can assume the ppts will too.
what is a cost-benefit analysis of ethics?
ethics
weighing up the likely benefits (new knowledge) of the research against the likely costs (harm or social sensitivity) of the ppts
what is a limitation of cost-benefit analysis?
ethics
often the true value of a study to society isn’t known for many years so can be difficult to predict
what is the process of debriefing?
ethics
- reveal true aim
- reveal existence of other groups
- check if harm has been caused
- offer assistance if harm has been caused
- remind ppts they still can withdraw
what is peer review?
peer review
process that takes place before a study is published to make sure the research is high quality, contributes to the field of research and is accurately presented.
who will conduct the peer review?
peer review
an expert in the field
what occurs during peer review?
peer review
report read by expert anonymously and comments are made about if it should be reviewed, sent to publishing, or not sent at all.
why may a report be rejected?
peer review
the paper describes a poorly conducted study, the research conducted was inadequate, the literature review is inadequate, the paper has methodological problems, the sample is problematic
what would happen if a report wasn’t peer reviewed?
peer review
if it contained poor quality research, it may have implications on society or individuals, becoming part of mainstream thinking -> damage intergrity of field.
what are the strengths and limitations of peer review?
peer review
S: high quality control mechanism (ensures only hightes quality released publically); prevents scientific fraud
L: if anonymity is not maintained experts with a conflict of interest might not approve research to further their own reputation or career; may lead to file drawer effect.
what is the file drawer effect?
peer review
as only statistically significant findings are published, findings that challenge existing understanding might be overlooked as they are not published.
how does the economy link with psychological research?
implications on economy
the research’s findings can be applied by governments/businesses to improve the economy.
how does psychology create a more economically stable country?
implications on economy
- a more psychologically healthy population cna be more productive + producing more goods
- the cosumption of goods is dependant on an able population
- tax revenue that pays for public services is dependent on people buying the resulting goods from productive people.
how has research into maternal deprivation implicated the economy?
implications on economy
Bowlby’s CP, Rutter’s Orphans and Ainsworth all demonstarted how development can be affected by deprivation.
- Midwives use knowledge of developmental needs to give informed advice to expectant mothers to ensure child has best possible start to life -> no need for public services.
- Adoption agencies now prioritise quick placements for infants to prevent more money than needed being given by the public services.
- Role of the father has enabled the gender pay gap to close and for mother’s to return back to work quickly after birth -> more economically active mothers (less chance of PPD and so less money on MH support) and less money on nursery fees.
how has research into memory impliated society?
implications on economy
Loftus and Palmer’s reserach into EWT led to improvements e.g. cognitive interview.
led to less chance of miscarriage of justice
-> less money is being spent on trials, keeping prisons to standard, appeals, retrials and possible financial compensation for the wrongly accused. beneficial to the economy and tax payers.
how has research into the biological approach implicated the economy?
implications on economy
research into neurotransmitters has led to developments in drug therapies e.g. SSRIs
- led to less MH support being sought after
-> cheaper for NHS (funded publicly) - feel more able/well enough to go to work and therefore there is more productivity which stimulates the economy by generating more goods to be bought by others.
stress, psychopathology
how has research into relationships implicated the economy?
implications on economy
Duck’s Breakdown Model has enabled effective couple’s therapy strategies to be devised
led to more relationships being ‘fixed’ which means less money is being spent in holding divorce cases in court and less money being spent on building houses to house more individuals.
what is reliability?
reliability
the consistency of the study or a measuring device used in the study.
when is it said that a study has reliability?
reliability
when the study can be replicated (same procedure and same measures give same results time and time again)
what is external reliability?
reliability
the extent to which a study can be replicated
how is external reliability tested?
reliability
test-retest reliability.
how is test-retest carried out?
reliability
the study is conducted, then conducted again and again and again
how is test-retest used to analyse reliability?
reliability
the scores from the original and repeats are correlated using a statistical method e.g. Pearson’s.
- a positive correlation between the scores indicates good test-retest reliability, suggesting the test yields consistent results over time.
what are the strengths and limitations of test-retest?
reliability
S: can determine the extent to which items are replicable or consistent over time.
L: takes a long time -> reliability can be influenced by the time interval e.g. events.
- timing of the test is important; if gap is too brief ppts may recall information from the first = bias the results.
what is inter-observer reliability?
reliability
the consistency and agreement between individuals scoring or evaluating the same items or behaviors.
how is test-retest used to analyse inter-observer reliability?
reliability
observation records made by all observers are compared and correlated:
- positive correlation indicates good reliability in the observations made.
how can inter-observer reliability be improved?
reliability
- train observers in the observation techniques used and ensure everyone agrees.
- ensuring behaviour categories have been operationalized.
what is internal reliability?
reliability
the how well different items on a measure (e.g. questionnaires) that are intended to measure the same construct produce similar scores.
how is internal reliability measured?
reliability
split half reliability
how is split half reliability carried out?
reliability
test or questionnaire split into two halves.
each half is scored/used separately. the scores are correlated using a statistical method, often Pearson’s correlation.
how is split half used to analyse reliability?
reliability
a strong posiitve correlation indicates good reliability between the questionnaires/tests.
what are the strengths and limitations of split half reliability?
reliability
S: quick and easy way to establish reliability
L: can only be effective with large questionnaires where all questions measure the same construct.
what is validity?
validity
the extent to which a test or measurement tool accurately measures what it’s intended to measure.
what is internal validity?
validity
can the study design, conduction, and analysis answer the research questions without bias?
what is external validity?
validity
can the results of a study be generalized to other settings, people and over time?
what is face validity?
validity
does the test or study do/measure what it claims to do?
how can face validity be assessed and improved?
validity
- ask other people to review your design and measure and gauge their suitability for the study’s aims.
- change anything they deem unsuitable
what is concurrent validity?
validity
the extent to which a new unvalidated measure compares to a previously validated measure.
- a positive correlation suggest new has validity too.
how can concurrent validity be assessed and improved?
validity
- comparing a new test with an existing test to see if they produce similar results.
- use up to date data, create standardised procedure, use design techniques to reduce the chance of conflicting updates
what is the problem with concurrent vaildity?
validity
if the ‘benchmark’ test is flawed, the new unvalidated will have same flaws is storng postive correlation
also involves a degree of subjectivity
what is ecological validity?
validity
the extent to which findings can be generalised to other people, situations and times outside the study.
how can ecological validity be assessed and improved?
validity
- examine whether the findings of the study can be generalised
- select conditions that reflect real-world experiences, use naturalistic settings, and including diverse populations, use observational techniques.
what is temporal validity?
validity
the extent to which the findings hold true over time -> if replicate in 50 years, will we get the same results?
how can temporal validity be assessed and improved?
validity
- replicate study and see if the results are similar
- conducted study repeatedly across different times to ensure results are reflective.
what is objectivity?
features of a science
researchers not letting their personal biases affect the results of studies in order for empirical evidence to be drawn from their observations.
what is the empirical method?
features of a science
to use of objective observation, experimentation and measurement to draw conclusions and propose theories.
what is replicability?
features of a science
the ability to repeat psychological studies in order to check that the findings are valid and reliable.
what is falsifiability?
features of a science
Karl Popper (1934) argued that in order for a theory to be truly scientific, it must be possible to be proved wrong. theories that survive repeated attempts to be proved wrong are very likely to be true.
how is a theory constructed?
features of a science
- begins with an observation of a problem
- leads to the development of an hypothesis
- studies designed to test hypothesis and evidence gathered
- evidence will either accept or reject the null hypothesis
- if data constantly supports hypothesis, a theory is developed and will later become scientific law
what is a paradigm?
features of a science
a general law or theory that is accepted by the majority.
what is a paradigm shift?
features of a science
over time evidence against the paradigm will accumulate and eventually a new theory becomes the paradigm.
what did Kuhn propose about science development?
features of a science
3 stages:
1. pre science - variety of theories attempting to explain something.
2. normal science - a paradigm emerges
3. revolutionary science - a paradigm shift occurs.
what happens after research is conducted?
reporting psychological investigations
the psychologist must write up a report for publication to communicate their findings to others.
how is a published report laid out?
reporting psychological investigations
- title
- abstract
- introduction
- method
- results
- discussion
- references
what is a title?
reporting psychological investigations
a concise indication of the focus and main variables of study
what is an abstract?
reporting psychological investigations
a brief summary of the study’s aims, method, findings and conclusion
written last
what is an introduction?
reporting psychological investigations
introduces the background literature and research relevant to the study. provides a context.
what is a method?
reporting psychological investigations
describes in detail how the investigation was carried out -> allows for replicability
includes: experimental design, ppt selection, materials used and procedure
what is the results section?
reporting psychological investigations
where the findings of the study are reported; usually includes descriptive statistics. may include statement signalling if hypothesis was supported or not.
what is the discussion section?
reporting psychological investigations
where explanation of findings and context of background research is found. will also have critical assessment of study e.g. limitations that affect validity etc.
what is the reference section?
reporting psychological investigations
all research cited in report must be alphabetically listed to help readers find same information.
