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Research Methods > Scientific Processes 2 > Flashcards

Scientific Processes 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are demand characteristics?

demand characteristics

A

subtle hints that make the participant aware of what the experimenter predicts or hopes to find; this motivates the participant to conform to the experimenter’s expectations.

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2
Q

why must demand characteristics be controlled?

demand characteristics

A

with the presence of DC, it becomes harder to say if the IV is responsible for the change in the DV or if the participant’s altered behavior played a role -> lowers internal validity
- also lowers external as cannot be generalised.

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3
Q

how can demand characteristics be controlled?

demand characteristics

A
  1. deception: telling ppts study is about something its not (e.g. Asch 1951)
  2. use independent groups design/single blind trial (unsure of which condition they’re in)
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4
Q

what is the Hawthorne Effect?

demand characteristics

A

a tendency in some to alter their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed

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5
Q

what are investigator effects?

demand characteristics

A

the ways in which the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave in the study.

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6
Q

how may an investiagator display investigator effects?

demand characteristics

A
  • giving subtle clues/hints unconciously
  • personal attributes e.g. sex, age, ethnicity.
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7
Q

how can investigator effects be reduced?

demand characteristics

A
  • using a standardised procedure
  • leaving allocating up to chance (random allocation)
  • double blind trials: both ppts and investigators know the aim, only the one in charge who doesn’t see the ppts.
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8
Q

what are ethics?

ethics

A

moral codes that guide behaviour

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9
Q

what responsibility do psychologists have?

ethics

A

to conduct their research in a way that will prevent psychological, physical or cultural harm

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10
Q

what are UK psychologists expected to do?

ethics

A

to design and carry out research that follows the set ethical guidelines outlined by British Psychological Society (BPS)

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11
Q

what are the 4 general principles outlined by the BPS?

ethics

A
  1. respect for autonomy + dignity of persons
  2. scientific integrity
  3. social responsbility
  4. max. benefit, min. harm
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12
Q

what are the 6 ethical issues?

ethics

A
  1. informed consent
  2. deception
  3. right to withdraw
  4. confidentiality
  5. protection from harm
  6. debriefing
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13
Q

what is the informed consent guideline?

ethics

A

all ppts must be made aware of the aim, procedure and consequeces of the research and give their consent to partake after this.

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14
Q

what is the deception guideline?

ethics

A

researchers should not deliberately withhold information from ppts, else they cannot iev full informed consent.
- however sometimes needed to avoid DC

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15
Q

what is the right to withdraw guideline?

ethics

A

ppts must be told they are free to leave the study at anytime and are under no obligation to stay

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16
Q

what is the confidentiality guideline?

ethics

A

ppts data should be kept and not shared; when published, it should not include the ppt’s identity or details that could lead to identification

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17
Q

what is the protection from harm guideline?

ethics

A

the researcher is responsible for designing research that doesn’t cause any type of harm - ppts should leave the same way they arrived.

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18
Q

what is the debriefing guideline?

ethics

A

process of revealing to ppts tany withhled information - ensures ppts leave unaffected.

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19
Q

how could ethical issues be dealt with?

ethics

A
  • if revealing true aim risks DC, gathering informed consent an alternative way
  • if study needs deception, cost benefit analysis conducted by an ethics committee
  • debriefing
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20
Q

what are the alternative ways of gathering informed consent?

ethics

A
  1. Prior General Consent - given a long list of features of research but unclear what will be in their study
  2. Reteroactive Consent - ppts asked for consent after the study, if they say no, data destroyed
  3. Presumptive Consent - ask a group similar to ppts, if they say yes, we can assume the ppts will too.
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21
Q

what is a cost-benefit analysis of ethics?

ethics

A

weighing up the likely benefits (new knowledge) of the research against the likely costs (harm or social sensitivity) of the ppts

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22
Q

what is a limitation of cost-benefit analysis?

ethics

A

often the true value of a study to society isn’t known for many years so can be difficult to predict

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23
Q

what is the process of debriefing?

ethics

A
  • reveal true aim
  • reveal existence of other groups
  • check if harm has been caused
  • offer assistance if harm has been caused
  • remind ppts they still can withdraw
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24
Q

what is peer review?

peer review

A

process that takes place before a study is published to make sure the research is high quality, contributes to the field of research and is accurately presented.

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25
Q

who will conduct the peer review?

peer review

A

an expert in the field

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26
Q

what occurs during peer review?

peer review

A

report read by expert anonymously and comments are made about if it should be reviewed, sent to publishing, or not sent at all.

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27
Q

why may a report be rejected?

peer review

A

the paper describes a poorly conducted study, the research conducted was inadequate, the literature review is inadequate, the paper has methodological problems, the sample is problematic

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28
Q

what would happen if a report wasn’t peer reviewed?

peer review

A

if it contained poor quality research, it may have implications on society or individuals, becoming part of mainstream thinking -> damage intergrity of field.

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29
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of peer review?

peer review

A

S: high quality control mechanism (ensures only hightes quality released publically); prevents scientific fraud
L: if anonymity is not maintained experts with a conflict of interest might not approve research to further their own reputation or career; may lead to file drawer effect.

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30
Q

what is the file drawer effect?

peer review

A

as only statistically significant findings are published, findings that challenge existing understanding might be overlooked as they are not published.

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31
Q

how does the economy link with psychological research?

implications on economy

A

the research’s findings can be applied by governments/businesses to improve the economy.

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32
Q

how does psychology create a more economically stable country?

implications on economy

A
  • a more psychologically healthy population cna be more productive + producing more goods
  • the cosumption of goods is dependant on an able population
  • tax revenue that pays for public services is dependent on people buying the resulting goods from productive people.
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33
Q

how has research into maternal deprivation implicated the economy?

implications on economy

A

Bowlby’s CP, Rutter’s Orphans and Ainsworth all demonstarted how development can be affected by deprivation.

  • Midwives use knowledge of developmental needs to give informed advice to expectant mothers to ensure child has best possible start to life -> no need for public services.
  • Adoption agencies now prioritise quick placements for infants to prevent more money than needed being given by the public services.
  • Role of the father has enabled the gender pay gap to close and for mother’s to return back to work quickly after birth -> more economically active mothers (less chance of PPD and so less money on MH support) and less money on nursery fees.
34
Q

how has research into memory impliated society?

implications on economy

A

Loftus and Palmer’s reserach into EWT led to improvements e.g. cognitive interview.

led to less chance of miscarriage of justice
-> less money is being spent on trials, keeping prisons to standard, appeals, retrials and possible financial compensation for the wrongly accused. beneficial to the economy and tax payers.

35
Q

how has research into the biological approach implicated the economy?

implications on economy

A

research into neurotransmitters has led to developments in drug therapies e.g. SSRIs

  • led to less MH support being sought after
    -> cheaper for NHS (funded publicly)
  • feel more able/well enough to go to work and therefore there is more productivity which stimulates the economy by generating more goods to be bought by others.

stress, psychopathology

36
Q

how has research into relationships implicated the economy?

implications on economy

A

Duck’s Breakdown Model has enabled effective couple’s therapy strategies to be devised

led to more relationships being ‘fixed’ which means less money is being spent in holding divorce cases in court and less money being spent on building houses to house more individuals.

37
Q

what is reliability?

reliability

A

the consistency of the study or a measuring device used in the study.

38
Q

when is it said that a study has reliability?

reliability

A

when the study can be replicated (same procedure and same measures give same results time and time again)

39
Q

what is external reliability?

reliability

A

the extent to which a study can be replicated

40
Q

how is external reliability tested?

reliability

A

test-retest reliability.

41
Q

how is test-retest carried out?

reliability

A

the study is conducted, then conducted again and again and again

42
Q

how is test-retest used to analyse reliability?

reliability

A

the scores from the original and repeats are correlated using a statistical method e.g. Pearson’s.
- a positive correlation between the scores indicates good test-retest reliability, suggesting the test yields consistent results over time.

43
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of test-retest?

reliability

A

S: can determine the extent to which items are replicable or consistent over time.
L: takes a long time -> reliability can be influenced by the time interval e.g. events.
- timing of the test is important; if gap is too brief ppts may recall information from the first = bias the results.

44
Q

what is inter-observer reliability?

reliability

A

the consistency and agreement between individuals scoring or evaluating the same items or behaviors.

45
Q

how is test-retest used to analyse inter-observer reliability?

reliability

A

observation records made by all observers are compared and correlated:
- positive correlation indicates good reliability in the observations made.

46
Q

how can inter-observer reliability be improved?

reliability

A
  1. train observers in the observation techniques used and ensure everyone agrees.
  2. ensuring behaviour categories have been operationalized.
47
Q

what is internal reliability?

reliability

A

the how well different items on a measure (e.g. questionnaires) that are intended to measure the same construct produce similar scores.

48
Q

how is internal reliability measured?

reliability

A

split half reliability

49
Q

how is split half reliability carried out?

reliability

A

test or questionnaire split into two halves.
each half is scored/used separately. the scores are correlated using a statistical method, often Pearson’s correlation.

50
Q

how is split half used to analyse reliability?

reliability

A

a strong posiitve correlation indicates good reliability between the questionnaires/tests.

51
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of split half reliability?

reliability

A

S: quick and easy way to establish reliability
L: can only be effective with large questionnaires where all questions measure the same construct.

52
Q

what is validity?

validity

A

the extent to which a test or measurement tool accurately measures what it’s intended to measure.

53
Q

what is internal validity?

validity

A

can the study design, conduction, and analysis answer the research questions without bias?

54
Q

what is external validity?

validity

A

can the results of a study be generalized to other settings, people and over time?

55
Q

what is face validity?

validity

A

does the test or study do/measure what it claims to do?

56
Q

how can face validity be assessed and improved?

validity

A
  • ask other people to review your design and measure and gauge their suitability for the study’s aims.
  • change anything they deem unsuitable
57
Q

what is concurrent validity?

validity

A

the extent to which a new unvalidated measure compares to a previously validated measure.
- a positive correlation suggest new has validity too.

58
Q

how can concurrent validity be assessed and improved?

validity

A
  • comparing a new test with an existing test to see if they produce similar results.
  • use up to date data, create standardised procedure, use design techniques to reduce the chance of conflicting updates
59
Q

what is the problem with concurrent vaildity?

validity

A

if the ‘benchmark’ test is flawed, the new unvalidated will have same flaws is storng postive correlation
also involves a degree of subjectivity

60
Q

what is ecological validity?

validity

A

the extent to which findings can be generalised to other people, situations and times outside the study.

61
Q

how can ecological validity be assessed and improved?

validity

A
  • examine whether the findings of the study can be generalised
  • select conditions that reflect real-world experiences, use naturalistic settings, and including diverse populations, use observational techniques.
62
Q

what is temporal validity?

validity

A

the extent to which the findings hold true over time -> if replicate in 50 years, will we get the same results?

63
Q

how can temporal validity be assessed and improved?

validity

A
  • replicate study and see if the results are similar
  • conducted study repeatedly across different times to ensure results are reflective.
64
Q

what is objectivity?

features of a science

A

researchers not letting their personal biases affect the results of studies in order for empirical evidence to be drawn from their observations.

65
Q

what is the empirical method?

features of a science

A

to use of objective observation, experimentation and measurement to draw conclusions and propose theories.

66
Q

what is replicability?

features of a science

A

the ability to repeat psychological studies in order to check that the findings are valid and reliable.

67
Q

what is falsifiability?

features of a science

A

Karl Popper (1934) argued that in order for a theory to be truly scientific, it must be possible to be proved wrong. theories that survive repeated attempts to be proved wrong are very likely to be true.

68
Q

how is a theory constructed?

features of a science

A
  • begins with an observation of a problem
  • leads to the development of an hypothesis
  • studies designed to test hypothesis and evidence gathered
  • evidence will either accept or reject the null hypothesis
  • if data constantly supports hypothesis, a theory is developed and will later become scientific law
69
Q

what is a paradigm?

features of a science

A

a general law or theory that is accepted by the majority.

70
Q

what is a paradigm shift?

features of a science

A

over time evidence against the paradigm will accumulate and eventually a new theory becomes the paradigm.

71
Q

what did Kuhn propose about science development?

features of a science

A

3 stages:
1. pre science - variety of theories attempting to explain something.
2. normal science - a paradigm emerges
3. revolutionary science - a paradigm shift occurs.

72
Q

what happens after research is conducted?

reporting psychological investigations

A

the psychologist must write up a report for publication to communicate their findings to others.

73
Q

how is a published report laid out?

reporting psychological investigations

A
  1. title
  2. abstract
  3. introduction
  4. method
  5. results
  6. discussion
  7. references
74
Q

what is a title?

reporting psychological investigations

A

a concise indication of the focus and main variables of study

75
Q

what is an abstract?

reporting psychological investigations

A

a brief summary of the study’s aims, method, findings and conclusion
written last

76
Q

what is an introduction?

reporting psychological investigations

A

introduces the background literature and research relevant to the study. provides a context.

77
Q

what is a method?

reporting psychological investigations

A

describes in detail how the investigation was carried out -> allows for replicability
includes: experimental design, ppt selection, materials used and procedure

78
Q

what is the results section?

reporting psychological investigations

A

where the findings of the study are reported; usually includes descriptive statistics. may include statement signalling if hypothesis was supported or not.

79
Q

what is the discussion section?

reporting psychological investigations

A

where explanation of findings and context of background research is found. will also have critical assessment of study e.g. limitations that affect validity etc.

80
Q

what is the reference section?

reporting psychological investigations

A

all research cited in report must be alphabetically listed to help readers find same information.

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