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Research Methods > Scientific Processes > Flashcards

Scientific Processes Flashcards

1
Q

what is the first step into conducting research?

aims

A

developing an aim and hypothesis

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2
Q

what is an aim?

aims

A

a general statement outlining the purpose of the investigation e.g. ‘to investigate effect of loud noise on recall’

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3
Q

what is an hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a specific prediction about the outcome of the investigation - it will be tested in the investigation. e.g. ‘ loud noise will have a negative effect on recall’

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4
Q

how can a hypothesis be operationalized?

hypothesis

A

the nature of the variables and how they are to be measured must be clear in the hypothesis. e.g ‘exposure to 100 decibels of noise during a task will lead to poorer recall’

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5
Q

what is an experimental hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a hypothesis for research adopting an experiment design

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6
Q

what is an alternative hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a hypothesis for research adopting a non experimental deisgn e.g correlations, observation or self reporting studies.

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7
Q

what is a null hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that predicts there will be no difference/relationship/association etc.
‘plant growth is not effected by light colour’

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8
Q

what are the two types of experimental/alternative hypotheses.

hypothesis

A
  1. directional
  2. non directional
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9
Q

what is a directional hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that predicts a specific direction of outcome e.g ‘reaction time in sober ppts will be **greater than **that of drunk ppts’

usually has ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’

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10
Q

when would a directional hypothesis be useful?

hypothesis

A

when prior reserach indicates the results will go in one direction

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11
Q

what is a non-directional hypothesis?

hypothesis

A

a hypothesis that does not predict a specific direction of the results e.g ‘drinking alcohol will affect reaction time’

usually use ‘affect’ or ‘alter’

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12
Q

what is a sample?

sampling

A

the ppts selected to take part in research

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13
Q

what is the first step to sampling?

sampling

A

identifying the target population

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14
Q

what is a population?

sampling

A

the wider group of people identified as those that the findings of research should apply to

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15
Q

what the target population?

sampling

A

the particular group of interest to the research

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16
Q

how do we study the behaviour of the target population?

sampling

A

select a number of people from the population who are representative of everyone in the target pop.

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17
Q

what happens if the sample is not representative of the target population?

sampling

A

it is biased and we would not be able to generalise our findings to anyone other than the ppts in the study. e.g. all male sample, cannot be generalised to females

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18
Q

what else needs to be considered when choosing a sample?

sampling

A

sample size

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19
Q

what do researchers need to do to avoid a bias?

sampling

A

as large a sample size as possible and as representative a sample as possible

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20
Q

what are the 5 sampling techniques?

sampling techniques

A
  1. random
  2. stratified
  3. systematic
  4. opportunity
  5. volunteer
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21
Q

what is a random sample?

sampling techniques

A

a sample where all members of the target population have an equal chance to be selected

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22
Q

what is the logic behind a random sample?

sampling techniques

A

chance selection should mean no ppt characteristic is more likely than any other to appear, reducing likelihood of a bias

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23
Q

what are the ways to create a random sample?

sampling techniques

A
  • computer selection
  • lottery method
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24
Q

what is the computer selection method in random sampling?

sampling techniques

A

all potential ppts names are entered into a program that selects a specific number of entrants at random

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25
Q

what is the lottery selection method of random sampling?

sampling techniques

A

‘names in a hat’ : each ppt given a number that is entered into a lottery and a specific number are randomly selected

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26
Q

what are the strength and limitation of random sampling?

sampling techniques

A

S: investigator has no control so no investigator bias
L: still a small possibility of unrepresentative sample being chosen

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27
Q

what is a stratified sample?

sampling techniques

A

a sample where key characteristics of the target population are represented in the same proportion.

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28
Q

what is an example of stratified sampling using sexes?

sampling techniques

A

if target population is 60% male, 40% female, the sample must be made up of 60% male, 40% female as well.

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29
Q

how is a stratified sample selected once proportions are known?

sampling techniques

A

random sampling

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30
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of stratified sampling?

sampling techniques

A

S: avoids investigator bias
S: representative of population
L: if all key characteristics cannot be identified -> not representative

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31
Q

what is a systematic sample?

sampling techniques

A

a sample where ppts are mathematically chosen by dividing population by sample size and choosing every nth person from the list

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32
Q

how would ppts be chosen in a population of 200 and a desired sample size of 20?

sampling techniques

A

200/20 = 10
every 10th person from the list is selected

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33
Q

what is a strength and limitation of systematic sampling?

sampling techniques

A

S: the only input from investigator is sample size so no investigator bias
L: possibility that sample is not representative

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34
Q

what is a opportunity sample?

sampling techniques

A

a sample where ppts are selected due to convienient availability
e.g. a friend or someone passing by

35
Q

what is a strength and limitation of opportunity sampling?

sampling techniques

A

S: less time consuming than other techniques
L: investugator may subconciously show bias so limits generalisability

36
Q

what is a volunteer sample?

sampling techniques

A

a sample where ppts self select/volunteer themselves to be apart of the sample

37
Q

how may a volunteer sample come about?

sampling techniques

A

adverts or posters

38
Q

what is a strength and limitation of volunteer sampling?

sampling techniques

A

S: straight forward so less time consuming than other techniques
L: sample bias is likely as only certain types of people are motivated to volunteer so limits generalisability.

39
Q

what is a pilot study?

pilot studies

A

a small, trial version of proposed studies to test the effectiveness and make improvements if necessary

40
Q

what is the aim of a pilot study?

pilot studies

A

to identify potential issues early and rectified them before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation

41
Q

what needs to happen in a pilot study regarding ppts?

pilot studies

A

the ppts must be typical of those taking part in the real study.

42
Q

what can pilot studies allow researchers to do?

pilot studies

A

adjust design, procedure and analysis of findings in order to increase reliability and validity of final research.

43
Q

what are the three types of experimental design?

experimental design

A
  1. independent groups
  2. repeated measures
  3. matched pairs
44
Q

what is an independent groups design?

experimental design

A

an experimental design where each ppt only takes part in either the experimental conditon or the control one.

45
Q

what type of data is produced by independent groups?

experimental design

A

unrelated data -> an individual’s data cannot be paired with another’s in the other condition

46
Q

how are the ppts placed in which condition in independent groups?

experimental design

A

random allocation to balance out ppt (extraneous) variables across both conditions

47
Q

example of an independent groups design:

experimental design

A
  • 20 ppts divided into 2 groups by a coin toss
  • 1 group is the control, group is the experimental
48
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of independent groups design?

experimental design

A

S: no order effects, saves time and effort, demand characteristics reduced (can’t work out aim)
L: twice as many ppts required -> more money spent potentially, extraneous variables may affect results.

49
Q

what is a repeated measures design?

experimental design

A

an experiemental design in which the same ppts complete both the experimental and control condition

50
Q

what does repeated measures allow researchers to do?

experimental design

A

compare each participants score in both conditions

51
Q

what type of data does repeated measures produce?

experimental design

A

related data -> an individual’s data from one condition can be paired with their’s from the the other condition

52
Q

what are the strengths of using repeated measures?

experimental design

A
  • uses fewer ppts so less time, effort and money spent.
  • ppt (extraneous) variables) are not an issue as ppt does both conditions.
53
Q

what is the limitations of using repeated measures?

experimental design

A

risk of:
- order effects
- demand characteristics

54
Q

what are order effects?

experimental design

A

taking part in both conditions could lead to condition 1 influencing performance in condition 2. e.g boredom or fatigue

55
Q

how can order effects be controlled?

control

A

counterbalancing

56
Q

what is counterbalancing?

control

A

ABBA:
half the ppts do condition A then B first, whilst the other half do B then A. any order effects should be the same across conditions.
THIS WILL BE RANDOMLY ALLOCATED

57
Q

why might ppts display demand characteristics in repeated measures?

experimental design

A

they may figure out the aim and alter their behaviour to fit what they believe the experimenter is looking for.

58
Q

what is matched pairs design?

experimental design

A

an experimental design where ppts are assessed for a characteristic and paired up before being randomly allocated to either the control or experimental group.

59
Q

what type of data does a matched pairs design produce?

experimental design

A

related data -> each ppt in one condition can be comapred with the ppt matched to them in the other

60
Q

what are the strengths of using matched pairs?

experimental design

A
  • reduced ppt (extraneous) variables
  • no order effects as each ppt only does one condition
61
Q

what are the limitations of using matched pairs?

experimental design

A
  • need twice as many ppts -> time and effort
  • very difficult to match people identically (similiar but not exactly the same) -> may only work on identical twins.
62
Q

what is the independent variable?

variables

A

variable manipulated by the researcher.

63
Q

what is the dependent variable?

variables

A

the variable that is being measured by the researcher

64
Q

what are extraneous variables?

variables

A

an unwanted variable that can influence the measurement of the DV -> causing an error.

65
Q

what are examples of extraneous variables?

variables

A

-demand characteritsics
-participant variables
-situational variables
-order effects

66
Q

what are confounding variables?

variables

A

an uncontrollable variable that may influence the measurement of the DV.

67
Q

what is meant by operationalisation of variables?

variables

A

clearly stating and defining the variable and how it will be measured in the experiment.

68
Q

how may extraneous variables be controlled?

control

A
  • situational: standardisation
  • participant: randomisation + random allocation
    -order effects: counterbalancing
69
Q

what is standardisation?

control

A

ensuring that all ppts experience the procedure in the exact same way. any change in DV is due to IV

70
Q

what is randomisation?

control

A

using chance to decide:
- the order in which ppts will experience each condition in repeated measures
- which material/stimulus is used at different levels of the IV

71
Q

what is random allocation?

control

A

chance allocation of participants to conditions in an experiment e.g. toss a coin.

72
Q

why is important that observations are designed carefully?

observational design

A

in order to reduce observer bias and remove the risk of subjectivity between observers and maximise objectivity.

73
Q

**

what do researchers need to be aware of before starting an observation?

observational design

A
  • what behaviour is being observed
  • how exactly the behaviour is being measure
74
Q

what are behavioural categories?

observational design

A

a list of all behaviours to be recorded during an observation

75
Q

why is it important to have behavioural categories?

observational design

A

since different observers would have different interpretations as to what the behaviour may be (e.g aggression could be kicks or pokes). operationalises the DV.

76
Q

what are the two ways you can record behaviours in an observation?

observational design

A
  1. event sampling
  2. time smapling
77
Q

what is event sampling?

observational design

A

when you record on the behaviour checklist everytime the behaviour occurs/is displayed. (e.g. everytime someone kicks someone)

78
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of event sampling?

observational design

A

S: gain a frequency count of behaviours
L: if behaviour is exhibited at same time. can be hard to record everything -> miss something.

79
Q

what is time sampling?

observational design

A

when you record on the behaviour checklist what behaviours are present at prescribed intervals. (e.g every 10 seconds, record how many kids are kicking others)

80
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of time sampling?

observational design

A

S: It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.
L: some behaviours will be missed outside the intervals - observations may not be representative

81
Q

what is a structured observation?

observational design

A

one where the observer records behaviours based on a predetermined checklist
- behaviour categories.

82
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of structured observations.

A

S: easy to establish inter-rater reliability, easy to replicate, easy to record.
L: key behaviours may be missed as not part of checklist.

83
Q

what is an unstructured observation?

observational design

A

one where the observer records everything they see during the observation time.

84
Q

what are the strengths and limitations of unstructured observations?

observational design

A

S: researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going -> increase validity
L: open to observer bias, behaviours may be missed = decrease in reliability

Research Methods (5 decks)

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