scientific processes Flashcards
what is an aim
what a researcher sets out to study and find out
what is a one tailed hypothesis
(directional) Points to what direction the effect will appear in,
eg if someone thought student’s attendance affects their grades, one tailed hypothesis would be that students with higher attendance will have better grades then those with lower attendance
what is a two tailed hypothesis
(non-directional) will still predict that there will be an effect, but will not say what direction it will appear in. EG, in the same study, a two-tailed hypothesis might look like, there will be a significant difference in the grades of students with high attendance and students with low attendance
what is a null hypothesis
separate as it says that there will not be a psychological test in either condition.
what is a sample
the process of selecting participants from the population.
what is random sampling
each person is equally likely to be selected.
what are the advantages of random sampling
free from BIAS as all members of sample have an equal chance if being particuipated
what are disadvantages of random sampling
If the sampling frame is large random sampling may be impractical.
A complete list of the population may not be available.
Minority subgroups within the population may not be present in sample.
what is a volunteer in sampling
putting yourself forward to be used in a sample
what are the advantages of volunteers
gives access to a variety of participants which may be more representative
what are disadvantages of volunteers
may all display similar characteristics (such as being more trusting or cooperative than those who did not apply) thus increasing the chances of yielding an unrepresentative sample.
what is opportunity sampling
used to select participants from a target group to take part in a research study. It consists of the researcher selecting anyone who is available and willing to take part in the study.
what are the advantages of opportunity sampling
It is a quick and easy way of choosing participants for a study as it is based on convenience
what are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling
It may not be representative of the target population, potentially producing a sampling bias, and so the findings will lack external validity as they cannot be generalised.
what is a pilot study
small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements
what are independent groups
participants only take part in one of the conditions
what are the advantages of independent groups
no order effects
what are the disadvantages of independent groups
individual differences
what are repeated measures
experimental design where the same participants take part in each condition of the experiment.
advantages of repeated measures
no individual differences
disadvantages of repeated measures
order effects
what are matched pairs
where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age and IQ.
what are advantaged of matched pairs
there are no order effects, and demand is lower because all participants are tested only once.
what are disadvantages if matched pairs
can take up more financial resources than the other experimental designs because it requires more participants.
what are behavioural categories
An observational technique wherein participants’ possible behaviours are separated into more specific components
what is event sampling
counting how often a particular behaviour occurs
what is time sampling
recording behaviour every 30 secs over a 10 min slab. allow breaks so observation can be more concentrated
what is a controlled observation
contains an independent variable which is manipulated
what is a naturalistic observation
everything is naturally occurring, no manipulation
what is a covert observation
don’t know they are being watched (possible ethical issues)
what is an overt observation
aware they are being watched - no ethical issues (could leads to demand characteristics)
what is participant observation
observer becomes involved in the study
what is inter rate reliability
multiple observers have to agree on what they see and carry out the same procedure
what is an open question in a questionnaire
questions that require a participant to answer in their own words.
what is a closed question in a questionaire
ne that the participant can answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to.
what is investigator effects
occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences the outcome of any research they are conducting.
what are the key features of science
- must be a definable subject matter or paradigm (general laws)
- There must be a theory constructed from which hypotheses are derived and tested
- Concepts must be falsifiable
- There must be a use of empirical methods of investigation which can be replicated and produce objective results
what is a paradigm
An agreed upon set of theoretical assumptions about a subject AND its method of enquiry.
what are the 3 stages of science
- Pre-science: no paradigm exists, much debate about what the subject is and its theoretical approach.
- Normal Science: A generally accepted paradigm that can account for all the phenomena related to the subject, can explain and interpret all findings.
- Scientific revolution: evidence against the old paradigm reaches a certain point, and there is a paradigm shift. The old paradigm is replaced by a new one.
what is empiricism
All knowledge should be derived from sensory experience
e.g. observation and experiments.
what is falsifiability
Popper (1959) argues that scientific theories must always be
stated in such a way that the predictions derived from them
could potentially be shown to be false.
what are operationalised variables
- Rigorous and SPECIFIC methods
- Detailed reports so that others can replicate the work
what Is the independent variable
variable your manipulate
what is the dependent variable
variable you measure
what is operationalisation
how a variable is clearly defined by the researcher.
eg: variable - aggression from children in playground.
operationalised variable - frequency of aggressive acts such as hits shouts and pushed observed in a playground.
what is random allocation
allocation of participants to conditions in an experiment (experimental condition and control condition)
what is counterbalancing
technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design
what is randomisation
used in the presentation of trials in an experiment to avoid any systematic errors that might occur as a result of the order in which the trials take place.
what is standardisation
keeping everything the same for all participants so that the investigation is fair
what are extraneous variables
any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research study
what are confounding variables
factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result
what are ethical guidelines
informed consent, protection from harm, right to withdraw, confidentiality, debriefing and deception.
what is informed consent
researchers working with participants describe their research project and get consent to participate in the research based on the participants understanding of the project’s methods and goals.
what is deception
when a researcher gives false information to subjects or intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research
what does the right to withdraw mean
an individual who initially agrees to participate in a study has the right to withdraw from the study at any point and the right to refuse to answer any particular question(s) or participate in a particular set of procedures.
what is confidentiality
when you talk to professionals they shouldnt tell anyone else what you’ve said.
what is a debrief
provides participants with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested, procedures to deceive participants and the reason(s) why it was necessary to deceive them.
what does protection from harm mean
ensuring their physical safety, emotional well-being, privacy rights, dignity preservation during any psychological research or interventions.
what is the process off peer review
- allocation of general findings
- publication of research in academic books/journals
- assembling research ratings of uni departments
(edit this)
what does it mean for their to be a impact of psychological research on the economy
boost the economy by reducing absence from work.
It can also reduce costs to society, allowing money to be invested into other things such as technical innovations.
what is a test retest
compares a participants performance on the same people, on different occasions (external reliability)
what is reliability
extent to which a test produces a consistent findings every time its done
what is inter observer reliability
when at least 2 observers are used to gain objective and reliable results
what is FACE validity
is when an assessment or test appears to do what it claims to do.
eg: milligrams study had face validity
what is concurrent validity
compares new measurements with an already existing validated one
eg: exam papers, iq test, questionaire.
what is ecological validity
the extent to which experimental findings can be generalized to real-life situations, considering the realism and immersive nature of the experimental settings.
what is temporal validity
external validity that refers to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time. For example, do the findings of conformity research (e.g. Asch, 1951) apply to today
what are advantages of event sampling
any rare behaviours that take place are noted down because of the wide time period.
what are the disadvantages of event sampling
they demand much time and they require expertise and objectivity.
what are the advantages of time sampling
allows observers to focus on specific behaviors or activities during designated time periods, which can provide a more accurate picture of the behavior.
what are the disadvantages of time sampling
It’s accuracy is limited by the time limitations of the sample observed, and by the number of people being observed, and where and when they are being observed, and what they are being observed for
what are features of an abstract section in a scientific report
a summary of the aims, hypothesis, method, results and conclusions, and thus provides an overview of the entire report.
