Scientific Processes Flashcards
Aim v hypothesis
What you intent to do vs predictions about what the researcher expects to find
Directional hypothesis
Stay the specific direction the research expects results to move in e.g. higher, lower, more, less
Nondirectional hypothesis
These state a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of the results
Random sampling
Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected
+ Fair, even chances
- Difficult to organise, usually results in small sample that’s unrepresentative 
Systematic sampling
every nth member of the target population would be selected e.g. every fifth pupil from the register
Systematic sampling advantage and limitation
+ evenly spread sample over population, unbiased
- Time and effort, complete list of population required, Random sampling less time consuming
Stratified sampling
P selected according to their frequency in the target population
Subgroups (strata) identified (e.g. gender, age)
Stratified sampling limitation an advantage
+ Representative, characteristics of target population are represented, more generalisable
- can be very time-consuming as the categories have to be identified and calculated.
Opportunity sampling
Uses people from target population available at the time
+ easiest, most convenient method
- unrepresentative of target population as it’s drawn from a specific area, makes it difficult to generalise findings
Volunteer sample with
advantages and disadvantages
Participant select themselves, for example by answering an advert
+ participants are likely to be more motivated and not dropout as they selected themselves (lower attrition rates)
- biased sample, P may share certain traits (e.g. keen, curious) generalisation limited due to volunteer bias
Pilot study
- Smaller version of the study carried out before the main research.
- aim: to identify any flaws in the study and carry out the necessary modifications before doing the full-scale study. (e.g ambiguous questions, errors)
Independent groups design with disadvantage
Participants take part in one condition
- individual differences between groups, making the groups different to begin with (extraneous/confounding variables)
Independent groups design advantages
+ No order effects as participants only take part in 1 condition, they do not get any practice between conditions. so there are no practice or fatigue effects.
+ less demand characteristics, less likely to guess the aim of the study as they’re only taking part in one condition
Repeated measures design and advantage
Participants take part in all conditions

+ No individual differences, as participants in each condition are the same
+ half the number of P needed for IG design, less time spent gathering a sample
Repeated measures design disadvantages
- order effects, if participants take part in both conditions, they may improve due to practise or perform worse due to boredom or fatigue.
- Demand characteristics, more likely to guess the aim of the research if they take part in both conditions
Matched pairs design with
disadvantage
Participants matched on variables which are considered to be relevant to the experiment in question
- matching is time consuming, and not perfect as you cannot control all relevant variables
- More P needed (2x more than RM) more time-consuming gathering sample
Matched pairs design advantages
- unlike IG design there is no individual differences between groups as they have been matched to their conditions
- no order effects (fatigue or practise) as only tested once
Event sampling
A target behaviour / event is recorded every time it occurs
+ May record infrequent behaviour that would be missed using time sampling
- Complex behaviour oversimplified, if the event is to complex details may go unrecorded
Time sampling
Observations made at regular intervals
+ reduces number of observations
(More structured and systematic)
- May be unrepresentative (missing out important details outside the time scale)
Independent variable
Whatever is being manipulated in the experiment
Dependent variable
Where is being measured in the experiment
Dependent on the independent variable
Operationalisation of variables
To clearly state and objectify a variable
to ensure cause-and-effect is established.
Without operationalisation it’s unclear how variables will be measured
Confounding variables
Type of extraneous variable that is related to the IV in the experiment. Cannot be controlled for.
Anything that could cause change in the outcome, that’s not the IV, e.g. proving smoking causes heart issues, a confounding variable is family history.
Extraneous variable
Anything that is not the IV that has the potential to affect the results. e.g. noise and temperature. Can control/prevent these.
Demand characteristics
Participants behaving differently because they think they’ve guessed the aim of the study, or, because they want to please the experimenter.
Investigator effects
Any influence the investigator/ experimental situation has on the participants that may alter the results.
e.g. changes in the investigators mood may encourage participants.
Control over variables : Random allocation
Randomly assigning the sample using a randomisation technique into two groups helps control for cofounding variables
Randomisation
Material presented randomly to prevent order effects and control extraneous variables
Standardisation
Specific set of instructions keeping experimental methods as identical as possible
Counterbalancing
Having both samples experience both conditions. Serving as their own control group.
Used in repeated measures design to control for order effects. 
Informed consent
Participants told exactly what they’ll be doing so that they can give their informed consent
Deception
Participant should not be deceived unless this is absolutely necessary,
If deception is necessary, due care and attention should be taken (e.g. milgram)
Debriefing
At the end of the experiment participants must be debriefed and informed of the motivations for the experiment
Right to withdraw
Participants must be given the right to leave any time
Confidentiality
Any information provided by the participant must be kept in secret
Protection
The safety and well-being of the participants must be protected at all times
Describe Peer review process
1) author submits draft
2) clear detailed, rational aim, methods, results, conclusions, fully referenced
3) Drafts sent to multiple anonymous reviewers
4) Scrutinise critically (problems, suggestions)
5) Decisions Accepted (un/conditionally) or rejected (completely, encouraged to make change)
Advantages peer review
- improves quality of research 
- maintains stand of objectivity
- maintains independence of science form politics
- double blind review process reduces biad
Peer review disadvantages
- Reviewers often lack raw data
- slow process, time consuming
- conflict of interest cannot be interested
Inter observer reliability
Multiple investigators gather information separately during an observation and compare the data for similarity after.
Test-retest
Presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Face validity
Whether something measures what it claims to measure
Concurrent validity
Comparing a new test with an existing test of the same nature to see if they produce similar results
Ecological validity
Type of external validity which refers to the extent to which findings can be generalised to a real life setting
Temporal validity
Type of external validity referring to the validity of the findings in relation to the progression of time.
Features of science: Empirical method
Involves the use of an objective, quantitive observation
in a systematically controlled replicable situation
in order to test or refine a theory
Features of science: objectivity
Researcher should remain value-free and unbiased when conducting an investigation
Features of science: replicability
A study should produce the same results if it’s repeated exactly. Whether this is by the same researcher or another
Feature of science: falsifiability
A theory may only be considered scientific if in principle it’s possible to establish it as false.
Freud lacks Falsifiability
Features of science : Paradigm and paradigm shift
Paradigm : Basic concept, well accepted core belief
Paradigm shift: when previously accepted core concepts in a science are changed usually due to the emergence of new evidence
Questionnaire construction
- Clarity - Reader understands what’s being asked. No ambiguity
- Bias - that may Make respondent give a particular answer. socially desirable bias to make them seem more attractive, nicer, generous
- Analysis - Written allowing for easily analysis (open or closed ended Q)
Closed ended question
Questions with a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one.
Tend to produce quantitative data
Open ended questions
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of provided.
Tend to produce qualitative data
Behavioural categories
Target behaviour observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories
- difficult to make clear and unambiguous
