Science and Ideology

Question 1

What are the two arguments which support the view that science is superior to religion?

Answer 1

• science is an “open” belief system, religion is “closed’

- science practices CUDOS norms

Question 2

According to Popper (1959), how is science an open belief system?

Answer 2

An open belief system is one where knowledge claims are open to criticism and can be disproved by testing. Scientific theories are backed by research and are subject to scrutiny. Science operates with the falsification principle, meaning scientists strive to disprove theories by finding evidence. Scientific work is also cumulative meaning current day scientists try to expand the work of previous generations.

Question 3

According to Horton (1973), how is religion a closed belief system? (closed vs open)

Answer 3

Sees religion is unwilling to be challenged, often punishing those who dare to criticise it. Unlike science, religious knowledge is fixed and unchallenged, it therefore makes knowledge claims that cannot be successfully overturned because they are set in stone. When challenged, religion uses get out clauses that reinforces the image that prevent it from being disproved

Question 4

According to Polanyi (1958), what are the 3 ways religious leaders avoid scrutiny? (open vs closed)

Answer 4

1. circular arguments
2. subsidary arguments
3. deny legitimacy of rivals

Question 5

How does religion use circular arguments against their critics? (open vs closed)

Answer 5

Every time their belief is challenged, they try to explain and justify it within a sacred text. For example, is a religious leader was questioned over homophobic views, they will site that Adam and Eve were a heterosexual couple meaning God was willing for mankind to be straight

Question 6

How does religion use subsidary arguments? (open vs closed)

Answer 6

When the actions of God are criticised, they offer an alternative explanation. For example, if innocent people have died they use arguments such as god working in “mysterious ways”

Question 7

How does religion deny the legitimacy of its rivals? (open vs closed)

Answer 7

They refuse to accept any alternative world view attacking those that disagree. For example, the Christian New Right in the USA

Question 8

Evaluation of the view that religion is a closed belief system while science is an open one?

Answer 8

Scientific theories become embedded and presumed to be true. Furthermore, religion has adapted to a modern society and has many different sects e.c.t.

Question 9

According to Merton (1973), what are CUDOS norms and how does it make science superior?

Answer 9

Science is a superior belief system and that is why is continues to thrive. There has been a number of benefits that have impacted all of society, including; economics, health e.c.t

Question 10

According to Merton (1973), what are the 4 CUDOS norms? (CUDOS)

Answer 10

1. communism
2. universalism
3. disintredness
4. organised scepticism

Question 11

According to Merton (1973), what is the CUDOS norm of communism?

Answer 11

Scientific knowledge is there to benefit everyone, scientists share their knowledge and research with the global community which has benefited sectors such as medical care

Question 12

According to Merton (1973), what is the CUDOS norm of universalism?

Answer 12

Scientific research is based on a universal and objective criteria. Scientists work with one another around the globe; sharing their findings are reviewing work.

Question 13

According to Merton (1973), what is the CUDOS norm of disintredness?

Answer 13

Scientists seek to uncover knowledge just for the sake of it as they want to advance their knowledge of how the world works. They don’t do it for money of a career - just for personal interest

Question 14

According to Merton (1973), what is the CUDOS norm of organised scepticism?

Answer 14

All knowledge is open to rigorous testing and possible falsification. Scientists are always aware that their ideas may be disproved with time and they are accepting of this. This allows science to be cumulative

Question 15

Evaluation of the idea that science adheres to CUDOS norms and therefore is superior?

Answer 15

Challenge each CUDOS norm

Question 16

What are the 3 arguments which suggest that science is a closed belief system and is therefore inferior?

Answer 16

• restricted by paradigms
• science is a social construction
• science only benefits those in power

Question 17

According to Kuhn (1970), how is science restricted by paradigms?

Answer 17

Most major fields are restricted by paradigms which refers to a major assumption which scientists make when it comes to method of research and what evidence to focus on. Once a paradigm is established, future scientists are expected to work within the paradigm to find more evidence, not try and prove it wrong (falsification and cumulation)

Question 18

According to Kuhn (1970), what is the example used to show how scientists are ridiculed if they don’t work within a paradigm?

Answer 18

Michael Behe developed the theory of Intelligent Design in the 1990s, which tried to disprove evolution. His proposed findings were mocked and ridiculed and the theory (when taught in school) was even taken to court. Shows how paradigms restrict work

Question 19

According to Kuhn (1970), what is a paradigm shift?

Answer 19

When an old paradigm is simply replaced with a new one

Question 20

Evaluation of the idea that science is a closed belief system because it is restricted by paradigms?

Answer 20

Science has developed a lot, researchers now have tools to develop new ideas therefore evidence is not an “assumption”. Kuhn developed his theory in the 1970s too

Question 21

According to Interpretivists, how is science a social construction?

Answer 21

Claim that the work of scientists is restricted by the assumptions they hold, it is therefore a social construction as the theories developed are created by scientists rather than being objective. The theories are products of interpretation

Question 22

According to Woolgar (1992), how is science influenced by prior knowledge? (social construction)

Answer 22

Theories are heavily developed by prior knowledge, culture and values. When interpreting evidence, they will try to make sense of it by applying what they already know

Question 23

According to Woolgar (1992), what evidence is there to suggest that scientists interpretation of science comes from ones culture and values? (social construction)

Answer 23

In 1967, astronomers in Cambridge discovered a sound coming from space. It was labelled as “Little Green Men”, but the existence of aliens was not considered true in British society. The theory therefore was abandoned and it was turned into sound from the stars

Question 24

Evaluation of the view that science is a social construction?

Answer 24

When a study is published, it must undergo severe peer review testing. Most research does not involve a simplistic interpretation of a small amount of evidence, research is highly reliable and can re-tested by anyone

Question 25

What are the 4 views on the role of ideology in society?

Answer 25

• marxism
• feminism
• nationalism
• Mannheim: Ideology vs utopia

Question 26

What ideology are Marxists critical of?

Answer 26

The ruling class ideology

Question 27

According to Marxists, what is the ruling class ideology?

Answer 27

A set of beliefs which help reproduce, hide and justify socioeconomic inequality.

Question 28

According to Marxists, what example can be used to show the ruling class ideology?

Answer 28

The myth of meritocracy - the idea that all people have access to the same opportunity and how successful they are depends on their hard work. Marxists argue that this is not true, those born into wealthy families have more opportunity than those on low incomes. They have access to better housing and education. Those that don’t do well are blamed for their own failure, meaning they do not challenge the capitalist system

Question 29

According to Marxists, what does the ruling class promote the view of?

Answer 29

Promotes the view that capitalism is the superior belief system. Social institutions (superstructure) are Ideological State Apparatuses meaning the socialise people into supporting capitalism

Question 30

According to Marxists, how does the superstructure promote the view that capitalism is superior and forces people to value money and material goods?

Answer 30

Schools forces people to conform to strict rules (i.e. dress codes), and to obey authority from a higher power. This is then replicated in the workforce where people are made to believe that trade in their labour for money which is then spent on material goods.

Question 31

According to Marxists, how does the ruling class ideology lead to a state of false class conciousness?

Answer 31

Through free healthcare and education people are made to believe that the system cares for them, meaning they won’t revolt against the system

Question 32

Evaluation of the marxist view on ideology?

Answer 32

• presumes people to be passive
• dual consciousness
• people like capitalism
• marxism itself is an ideology

Question 33

According to feminists, what ideology are they critical of?

Answer 33

Patriarchal ideology

Question 34

According to feminists, what is the patriarchal ideology?

Answer 34

A set of ideas that promote male dominance and power within society. This ideology encourages people to regard men as; emotionally, physically and emotionally superior to women justifying the fact they control positions of power

Question 35

According to feminists, what jobs are men “more suited for”?

Answer 35

Positions of power such as a politician or CEO

Question 36

According to feminists, what jobs are women “better suited” for?

Answer 36

Low skilled, low paid jobs such as childcare and domestic labour

Question 37

According to feminists, what is the objectification of young women?

Answer 37

The idea that women should be sexually attractive for the benefit of men. For example, sexual assault is often blamed for women for how they dress or how they behaved.

Question 38

Evaluation of the feminist view on ideology?

Answer 38

• western society has empowered women (legal and political changes)
• deterministic

Question 39

What is the nationalist ideology?

Answer 39

A form of political ideology that revolves around the idea that nations are made up of communities which have a shared culture and identity and that national loyalty about a shared history is very important

Question 40

What are the 3 view points on the nationalist ideology?

Answer 40

• marxists
• modernist
• functionalism

Question 41

What is the marxist view on the nationalist ideology?

Answer 41

Extension of the capitalist ideology, nationalism is an extension of a divide and rule tactic. For example, it persuades the working class to be proud of their national identity and be suspicious of anyone that undermines it. Therefore it seems they have something in common with the ruling classes. It promotes false class consciousness whereby the reason they are in low paid, low skilled jobs is because of migration, when in fact it is capitalism itself

Question 42

What is the modernist view on nationalism?

Answer 42

Nationalism was not something that existed until the emergence of modern society and industrialization. In an industrial society, people are required to embrace a national system of economics and law, as such it brings people together on a large scale. This motivates the workforce to provide for the ruling classes

Question 43

What is the functionalist view on ideology?

Answer 43

It is a form of civil religion, which unites people under a shared national identity. Encourages social solidarity as people celebrate patriotic days such as the Queens Jubilee in 2022. Nationalism should be encouraged via the education system so that people feel a sense of social solidarity with one another

Question 44

Evaluation of the view of the role of the nationalist ideology?

Answer 44

• marxists = nationalism isnt a powerful ideology

- functionalism = nationalism can tear communities apart