Science Flashcards
Identify two reasons for conducting scientific investigations
Establishing procedures,
Improving quality of life,
Identify potential problems
Give an example of an investigation that has led to radically new designs that improve the quality of life
Prosthetics,
Artificial organs,
Body armor
Testing a hypothesis involves:
Systematically identifying the variables involved,
followed by creating a plan of action that involves observation and experimentation.
Communication and defense of Scientific Method involves
Problem identification, Question asking, Hypothesis development, Data collection and experimentation, Analysis, Conclusion
Data collection is important to the scientific process because
It aids in attempting to answer original question
Data Collections includes:
Observation - can be direct or indirect methods to obtain data;
Measurement - allows for collection of quantitative data;
Samples - obtaining data from a population or subset of a population;
Organization - organizing data into charts or readable tables.
Experimentation involves
Comparing a controlled group to an experimental group; and where the groups represent the population.
Analysis
Determination if collected data is relevant, reliable, and usable to support or null the hypothesis.
Conclusion
States the conclusion of the experiment to solidify the hypothesis of null it.
How does a hypothesis change over time?
A bias may be revealed,
Results are not repeatable
Give two reasons why scientific research is dependent on technology.
Data is recorded in numbers,
Relationships are established by graphs and formulas,
Numerical models are used to describe mathematical relationships.
Without mathematics, scientific research would not be possible. Explain why this is true.
If mathematics were not used, scientific descriptions would be purely qualitative in nature.
Quantitative investigations using numerical information begin with
Careful record keeping
Describe how mathematics and science have increased communication in the corporate world.
The internet and intranet have provided capability to transmit information across the world;
Fiber optics have increased data transfer speeds.
List two industries that benefit from the advancement of mathematical and technological skills.
Medical field,
Criminal forensics,
Emergency management,
Military operations
Scientific explanations are offered as direct results of what?
Evidence that currently supports them.
How does improved technology lead to better scientific explanation?
New technology allows for new explanation, such as smaller incremental measurement giving way to more precise data collection.
Apply the advancement of technology to our understanding of the solar system through history.
Technology has allowed us to conclude that Earth revolves around the Sun, and it has given way to the knowledge that there are millions of stars and not just within our solar system.
Deductive reasoning…
…is a method whereby conclusions follow from general principle.
Inductive reasoning…
…is a method of arriving at general principles from specific facts.
Anatomy
The study of the structure of organs and body systems.
Physiology
The study of the function of the organs and the body.
Hierarchy of the human structure (from smallest to largest)
Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems, Organism
Atoms (A&P)
Smallest parts of elements that still retain all the original properties of the element;
Forms molecules when combined.
Molecule
Chemical bonding of atoms that possesses its own characteristics independent of the atoms themselves;
Specific molecules form cells.
Cells
Basic unit of all life.
Combines in terms of function and type to form tissues.
Tissue
A combination of cells with similar function and type.
Two or more tissues combine to form and organ.
Organs
Tissues at this level are capable of complex function.
Multiple organs working together to perform a specific function/task form an organ system.
Human Organism contains how many organ systems?
11 organ systems in the human body.
Organism
Highest level of organization in the human body and a result of all organ systems working together.
Four basic human tissue types:
Epithelial,
Connective,
Muscle,
Nervous
Epithelial Tissue
Serves 2 functions: covering (skin), or secretion production (glandular tissue).
Commonly exists in sheets and does not have its own blood supply.
Can regenerate if well nourished.
Classified according to two criteria: cell shape and number of cell layers; Simple and stratified.
Stratified Epithelial cells
Multiple layers of cells and serves as protection.
Simple Epithelial cells
Single layer of cells located where secretion, absorption, and filtration occur.
Epithelial cell shapes:
Squamous,
Cuboidal,
Columnar
Connective Tissue
Found throughout the body and serves to connect different structures.
Commonly has its own blood supply.
Types include: bone, cartilage, fat (adipose), and blood vessels.
Types connective tissue
Bone,
Cartilage,
Adipose,
Blood vessels
Muscle Tissue
Dedicated to produce movement.
Three types: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Supports voluntary movement which are consciously controlled by the brain.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Involuntary control; found in the heart, intestines, hollow organs, uterus, bladder.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Involuntary control and located in the heart only.
Nervous Tissue
Provides structure for the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Protected by support cells like myelin.
Nerves
Made up from specialized cells called neurons that send electrical impulses throughout the body.
Circulatory System
cardiovascular system
Heart,
Blood vessels,
Blood
Digestive system
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small and Large intestine, Rectum, Anus
Pepsin
Enzyme released by the chief cells into the stomach that catalyze the breakdown of protein to peptides.
Absorption of nutrients generally occurs where?
Small intestine
Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are located where?
Small intestine
Colon removes what from waste?
Water
What is the livers roll in food digestion?
It produces bile which helps to breakdown fats.
Enzymes that are delivered to the small intestine to aid in digestion comes from where?
The pancreas
Endocrine System
Controls body function through the production and release of hormones that circulate through the blood.
Glands include: hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, thalamus, thyroid, thymus, and adrenal.
Pancreas, testes, and ovaries also have endocrine functions.
Hypothalamus
Considered the “master gland”
Integumentary System Components
Skin,
Mucous membranes,
Hair,
Nails
Integumentary System purpose
Serves to protect internal tissues and organs from injury, waterproofs the body, and helps regulate temperature.
Serves as a barrier to pathogens.
Lymphatic System components
Lymph nodes, lymph vessels that carry lymph, spleen, thymus, and tonsils.
Tonsils are made of…
…lymphoid tissue.
Lymphatic System function
Supports the immune system by housing and transporting WBC to and from lymph nodes.
Muscular System
Skeletal muscles,
tendons,
ligaments.
Nervous System Components
Brain,
spinal cord,
nerves.
Nervous System function
Serves to control the body.
Reproductive System
Ovaries, Testes, penis, vagina, breasts.
Ovum
Female reproductive cell
Respiratory System function & components
Oxygenates the body and removes CO2 from the system as it is released from cells.
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Alveoli
Air sacs in the lungs that contain arterioles that oxygen and CO2 move in and out of.
Skeletal System purpose
Provides support and structure, and protection of internal organs.
Serves as a storage for calcium and phosphorus.
Urinary System purpose
Helps maintain water and electrolyte balance; regulates pH; removes nitrogenous waste.
Nitrogen waste is the by-product of broken down proteins and nucleic acids.
Anatomical position
Body facing forward; feet parallel and arms at side palms facing forward.
Superior
Toward upper end of the body or structure.
Inferior
Toward lower end of the body or structure
Anterior
Toward the front of the body or structure
Posterior
Toward the back of the body or the structure
Medial
Toward the middle of the body or body structure
Lateral
Toward the outer sides of the body or body structure
Intermediate
between medial and lateral
Proximal
Close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment
Distal
Away from the origin of the body part or point of attachment
Superficial
Toward or at the body surface
Deep
Opposite of superficial
Sagittal section
Cut made along a longitudinal plane dividing the body into right and left parts.
Midsagittal section
Sagittal section cut made down to the median of the body
Transverse section
cross section
Cut made along a horizontal plane to divide the body into upper and lower regions
Frontal section
coronal section
Cut made along a longitudinal plane that divides the body into front and back regions
Dorsal body cavity
Contains the cranial and spinal column
Ventral body cavity
Contains all the structures within the chest and abdomen; diaphragm divides the ventral cavity into the thoracic cavity; below the diaphragm are the abdominal and pelvic cavities.
Adaptation
Receive, interpret, and respond to internal and external stimuli via the nervous system
Circulation
Transport oxygen and other nutrients to tissues via the circulatory system
Elimination
Remove metabolic wastes from the body via the renal system
Locomotion
Allow voluntary and involuntary movement of the body via the musculoskeletal and neurological systems
Nutrition
Take in and breakdown nutrients to be used for metabolism via the digestive system
Oxygenation
Take in oxygen and expel CO2 via the respiratory system
Regulation
Hormonal control of body functions via the endocrine system
Self-duplication
Production of off-spring via the reproductive system
Eukaryotic cells
Surrounded by membrane as are the organelles inside the cell.
Semipermeable
Capillaries
Vessels that transport blood from arteries to veins.
Serves as location for oxygen / CO2 exchange.
Blood Flow through the Heart
Deoxygenated blood enters from the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium; at contraction, blood passes the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Blood is pushed through the pulmonary artery to the lungs when the right ventricle contracts. Oxygenation occurs in the lungs then re-enters the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, through the mitral valve, and into the left ventricle. Contraction of the left ventricle forces the blood through the aortic valve, through the aorta, and out to the body.
If the mitral valve is damaged, what could possibly occur?
Mitral valve regurgitation; where blood flows backward into the left atrium.
The pulmonary valve ensures the blood stays in the…
Pulmonary artery
The diaphragm contracts during inspiration or expiration?
Inspiration
The nervous system contains the CNS and PNS. The brain and spinal cord are part of which one?
CNS
PNS is divided into…
Autonomic nervous system - which controls body functions like heart beat and digestion.
Sensory-somatic nervous system - consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and associated ganglia; these all control voluntary actions like talking and walking.
Autonomic nervous system consists of…
…sympathetic nerves (action) and parasympathetic nerves (resting).
Dendrites
Located in the nerves, receive stimuli from internal and external environment and brings them to the neurons for interpretation.
Axon
Connects one neuron to another with a synapse (fluid filled gap) between.
Three functions of the nervous system
Sensory function - provides sensory function; feeling pain, heat, stimuli.
Motor function - carries electrical impulses from the CNS to effectors.
Integrative function - uses sensory information o make decisions by joining together sensory input with memories stored in the brain; develops thoughts and feelings upon which decisions may be based in the future
Effectors
Glands,
Muscles
Peristalsis
Radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles which propels food contents through the digestive tract.
Enzymes
Chemicals that are responsible for chemical breakdown.
Salivary amylase
Enzyme released from the parotid salivary gland that begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
Bolus
Chewed food stuffs that pass from the mouth to through the esophagus to the stomach.
Protease
Enzyme that conducts proteolysis, that begins protein catabolism by hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
Chyme moves from the stomach into the small intestine (duodenum) via the…
Pyloric sphincter
Duodenum
First stretch of the small intestine that releases secretion and cholecystokinin (CCK).
The surface area for absorption in the small intestine is increased as a result of
Villi and microvilli
Immune system is composed of…
…nonspecific and adaptive defenses.
Pathogens are
Infectious agents
Innate immune functions
Physical and chemical barrier (skin, mucous membranes, and digestive system)
1st and 2nd line of defense
Adaptive response
3rd line of defense (specific defenses)
Antibody-mediated and cell-mediated responses
Innate Immune response
Nonspecific responses
Fever, inflammation, phagocytosis (engulfing of pathogens by WBC), natural killer cells (NK cells), interferons, chemotaxis, and release of cytokines.
Interferons
Proteins made and released by host cells.
Body’s response to viral infection.
Belongs to a class of glycoproteins known as cytokines.
Chemotaxis are:
Somatic cells, bacteria and single-cell / multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environments.
Lyse
Rupture
Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBC)
Diapedesis
Process where WBC squeeze through capillary slits in response to cytokines; followed by cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs) guiding WBC to the site of damage or infection.
Cytokines
Chemical messengers that are released by damaged tissue to “notify” body of damage location.
T-Cell
Lymphocyte that triggers the action of other lymphocytes.
Macrophage
WBC “big eaters” of the immune system
What kind of immunity is produced by a vaccine?
Artificially acquired active immunity
What is released by damaged cells in an effort to draw WBC to the areas od damage?
Cytokines
What is the physiological benefit of a mild to moderate fever?
Enhances non-specific destruction of pathogens
Fertility rates are higher in which types of countries?
Less developed countries
What are factors that may affect birth rates?
Religion Culture Economy Government Literacy Infant mortality rates Abortions Accessibility of family planning
Fertility rates are significant because they coincide with the ________ , which is the number needed to maintain the ________ at its current number.
replacement rate, population
Crude birth rate
Births per 1,000 people per year
Crude death rate
Deaths per 1,000 people per year
Taxonomy
8 levels
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
When Classifying individual species, on taxonomy, the Latin name of the genus and the species is written in italics with the genus capitalized and the species not capitalized.
Humans = [I] Homo sapiens
Natural Killer cells
Large Granular Lymphocyte (LGL) belong to innate immune system.
Cytotoxic lymphocyte that provides rapid response to virally infected cells and responds to tumor formation.
Matures in bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils and thymus.
Natural Selection
When some individuals of a species are better able to survive in their environment and reproduce than others.
Author of “On the Origin of Species”
Charles Darwin
Genes
Stetches of DNA on a chromosome that provide information for an organsims characteristics.
Genes exist in different forms called
Alleles
Changes in one or more alleles, to DNA
Mutation
Ability to survive and adapt to an environment
Adaptation
T/F
The action of natural selection is due to the presence of mutations in DNA that are passed on from generation to generation.
True
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA
Ribonucleic acid
Nucleic acids purpose is to…
…store and transmit hereditary information.
Nucleotides are, & consist of…
structurally
Chain of nucleic acids.
…a pentose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogeneous base.
Pentose
Five carbon monosaccharide (sugar)
Phosphate group
Molecule in the backbone of DNA and RNA that links adjoining bases together.
Nitrogeneous base
Molecule that encodes genetic information in DNA and RNA.
List 5 types of nitrogeous bases
Adenine (A),
Thymine (T),
Cytosine (C),
Guanine (G),
Uracil (U)
Adenine (A) always pairs with
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G) always pairs with
Cytosine (C)
DNA is most often seen as a
Double helix structure
Thymine is unique to…
DNA
Uracil is unique to…
RNA
In DNA, adenine and guanine
Purines
In DNA, thymine and cytosine
Pyrimidines
RNA is most often seen as a
Single-stranded string of nucleotides
DNA is considered the
Blueprint of the cell
RNA can be thought of as the
messenger within the cell
T/F
RNA is the messenger between DNA and protein production
True
Prokaryotic cell components
Cell wall (seperates inside from outside),
Cytoplasm (rich protein fluid with gel-like consistancy),
Organelles (tiny organs),
Nucleoid (condensed DNA of cell),
Plasmids (small, circular portions of DNA not associated with nucleoid),
Ribosomes (manufactures proteins for the cell from RNA messages),
Flagella (for movement; in some cells)
Eukaryotic cell are
Larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cell components
Plasma membrane (semi-permiable),
Cytoplasm (similar to eukaryotic cells),
Ribosomes (similar to eukaryotic cells),
Endoplasmic reticulum (tubular network within cell). Classified as smooth and rough. Responsible for moving proteins from one part of the cell to another,
Golgi apparatus,
Vesicles,
Mitochondria,
Microtubules,
Nucleus,
Nucleolus,
Chloroplast (plant cells only)
What coats the rough endoplasmic reticulum to give it a rough appearance
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Involved in packaging and transport of proteins in the cell.
Composed of layers of membranes & multiple functions: refine proteins from ribosomes; sorts proteins and preps for transport
Vesicles
Small membrane-bounded sac within cytoplasm.
Transports proteins and other substances in or out of the cell
Name 3 types of vesicles
Lysosome (contains digestive enzymes capable of disposing of cellular waste and debris);
Vacuole (basic storage unit of the cell that holds various conpounds);
Peroxisome (functions to rid the body of toxic substances such as H2O2)
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell because they are the location where cellular fuel is produced.
Large kidney-bean shaped organelle inside of cell
Cristae
singular = crista
Located in mitochondria and contains enzymes that help convert sugar into ATP
ATP
adenosine triphosphate
Cellular fuel
Microtubules
Cellular track that form mitotic spindle during mitosis.
Spindle helps to organize and segregate chromosomes during cell division
What cell organelle assists to organize chromosomes during mitosis?
Microtubules via spindles and assisted by centrosomes
Centrosomes
Microtubule-organizing center that assist form and organize mitotic spindle during mitosis
Nucleus
Control center of entire cell that contains cell’s genetic material.
Directs cell function
Nucleolus
Small body located inside of nucleus that functions to produce ribosomes that get moved to the cytoplasm to make proteins
Flagella
Plural = Flagellum
Allow cell movement / propulsion
Chloroplast
In plant cells only;
Contains chlorophyll to capture sunlight to manufacture ATP
T/F
Vacuoles in plant cells are larger larger than in animal cells?
True
T/F
The nucleus is the site of ATP production in cells
False
Ribosomes
Manufactures proteins for the cell from RNA messages
In prokyrotic (bacterial) cells, the DNA is located in the ______ , and in eukaryotic (animal/plant) cells, the DNA is found in the _____ .
nucleoid, nucleus
A chain of amino acids results in a…
…protein
_____ are large structure of DNA that contain the _____, the blueprints for making an individual.
Chromosome, genes
Why does DNA require RNA for protein production?
mRNA is needed to carry the code from the nucleus to the ribosomes for complete protein production
Cell protein production flow
DNA –> mRNA –> protein
Differentiation
Produces a more specialized cell from a less specialized cell
Gastrulation
When individual tissue layers begin to form
What regulates differentiation?
Genes
T/F
Cellular differentiation can occur in developing embyro or in an adult?
True
Embryo
Animal or plant in the early stages of development after fertilization.
Mitosis
Process of cell duplication in which two daughter cells receive identical nuclear matieral as the original
S Phase
Synthesis of new DNA during interphase
S, G1, and G2 phase are classified as…
Interphase
G1 Phase
DNA double helix unwinds to expose bases;
RNA bases pair with complimentary DNA partners to form messenger RNA strand;
DNA double helix closes and the mRNA exits the nucleus toward the ribosome
T/F
There are three steps of the cell cycle during interphase.
True
They are G1, S, and G2
Describe how the DNA double helix can be released to allow replication
Enzymes initiate the process of unwinding DNA and releasing the two complimentary strands of that DNA so DNA polymerase enzymes can duplicate them.
Purpose of mitosis
To replace old and dying cells with genetically identical ones.
Gamete
Cell that forms a new organism via sexual reproduction (from mother and father contribution)
Purpose of Meiosis
To halve the number of chromosomes; as in sexual reproducation; half from father and half from mother
Diploid cell
Cell that contain two sets of chromosomes
Haploid cell
Cell that contains a single set of chromosomes
Phases of mitosis
Prophase,
Metaphase,
Anaphase,
Telophase
Phases of meiosis
Prophase I,
Metaphase I,
Anaphase I,
Telophase I,
Prohase II,
Metaphase II,
Anaphase II,
Telophase II,
Prophase
Spindle fibers form and the centrioles moves to opposite side of the cell.
Nuclear membrane disappears
Metaphase
Chromosomes align midway along the spindle fibers.
Anaphase
Chromosomes begin to seperate from their daughter.
Cytokinesis begins
Cytokinesis
Separation of the two sets of chromosomes into different cells following telophase.
Telophase
Identical sets of chromosomes are at opposite ends of the cell.
Spindle fibers disappear nuclear membranes reappear, and cytokinesis completes.
Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes condense and link in the process-forming tetrads; allowing crossing over or recombination to occur.
Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes move to the metaphase plate
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes seprate, but the sister chromatids stay together
Telophase I
Cytokinesis has occured and two hapliod daughter cells are the result
Prophase II
A brief stage in which spindle fibers begin to reappear and centrioles move to oppposite poles
Metaphase II
Sister chromatids align at a new metaphase plate
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids seperate again
Telophase II
Four haploid cells result after cytokinesis
During meiosis, a _____ cell will give rise to four _____ cells.
diploid, haploid
The original diploid cell will undergo two divisions to create four haploid cells.
T/F
Mitosis and meiosis occur in all types of cells.
False
Mitosis occurs to replace old cells in all cell types; while meiosis occurs in gamates to bring about genetic variation amongst off-spring.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration both result in…
…the formation of cellular energy for an organism
Chloroplast
In plants only
Where CO2, water, and sunlight are used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Autotroph
Organism that is capable of producing its own food
Chemical equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy –> C6H12O6 + 6O2
CO2 + H2O + sunlight –> glucose + O2
Cellular respiration is used by
Heterotrophs
Heterotroph
Organism that cannot produce its own food for survival
Cellular respiration
Glucose is broken down by glycolysis, which transfers some glucose to ATP.
Chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
glucose + O2 –> CO2 + H2O + energy
End-products of glycolysis are fed into _____, to produce even more ATP.
the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
Chromosomes are located in the _____ of a cell and contain stretches of DNA called _____ .
nucleus, genes
Genes contains
Coded information that controls hereditary information of particular traits.
Codon
Comprised of three bases of the A, T, C, G pairs.
Each codon matches to a specific amino acid.
How many codons are possible?
64
Because 64 different 3-letter combinations can be formed from A, T, C, and G
There are _____ different amino acids.
20
What are the workhorses of the cell?
Proteins
A chain of amino acids forms ______ .
a protein
T/F
Genetic traits are expressed through the actions of proteins.
True
Mutations in the genome occur primarily by two mechenisms:
Errors during DNA replication
Mutagen (a substance that induces mutations)
DNA polymerase
Ezyme used by cells to speed up DNA synthesis
Mismatch repair
During DNA sysnthesis, QA is conducted to identify any mismatches of bases and are corrected by replacing the wrong base with the right base.
Undetected mismatches not caught are permanent.
Excision repair mechanisms
Inspect DNA for damage and repair if possible.
The excision repair will cut out the damaged stran and local bases and allow the DNA strand to polymerase to correct itself.
Mutations will only pass on to future generations if they are present in the DNA of…
germ cells
reproductive cells that give rise to sperm or ovum
Name the major enzyme responsible for DNA replication in cells.
DNA polymerase
T/F
DNA in gametes is the DNA passed on to future generations
True
Phenotypes
Physical expressions of genetic traits
Genotype
An organisms underlying genetic makeup code.
Blueprint for building and maintaining structures within cells of the body.
Interactions between the genotype and the _____ affect the phenotype of the organism.
environment
_____ are the entire set of genes in organisms, while _____ are the characteristics and traits that are expressed by those types.
Genotype, phenotype
The study of heredity or how traits are passed on from parent to offspring, is known as
Genetics
Recessive trait
Trait that disappeared in the offspring
When both parents give the offspring the same allele, the offspring is…
…homozygous
Homozygous
Having the same alleles at a particular gene locu on homogenous chromosomes
If each parent gives the offspring a different allele for a particular trait, the offspring is _____ for that trait.
heterozygous
Punnett square
Graphical way to show all possible combinations of alleles given the parents genotypes
Incomplete dominance
When a dominant and recessive genotype interact to produce an intermediate phenotype; a mix of two traits
Light years =
Distance light will travel within 1 year of time
Electromagnetic waves
Wave of radiation characterized by electric and magnetic fields
Wavelength spectrum is dived by short to long
Gamma ray,
x-ray,
ultraviolet,
visible,
infrared,
microwave,
radiowaves
Wavelength spectrum can be broken down visibly by color (ie. rainbow or prisms)
(from long to short)
Red,
orange,
yellow,
green,
blue,
indigo,
violet
Joules (J) or calories
Energy and its ability to do work
Kinetic energy (KE)
Energy in motion
Calculated using this equation
KE = 1/2 mv2
m = mass of an object
v = velocity
Example:
KE = 1/2 mv2 = 1/2 x 1 kg x (2 m/s)2 = 2J
when doubled =
KE = 1/2 mv2 = 1/2 x 1 kg x (4 m/s)2 = 8J
Potential Energy (PE)
Amount of energy stored in an object
Calculated using this equation PE = mgh m = mass g = gravity constant h = height
Example:
PE = mgh = 1 kg x 10 m/s2 x 1 m = 10J
when doubled height
PE = mgh = 1 kg x 10 m/s2 x 2 m = 20J
Law of Conservation of energy
Energy is not lost but rather transferred back and forth between KE and PE
Suppose a 5 kg object is heldd ate a height of 6m. What is the objects PE at this height? (assume g = 10 m/s2)
300 J
Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
The quantity of matter an object has.
Elements
Substances that cannot be broken into simpler types of matter
Protons
Positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom
Electrons
Negatively charged subatomic particles found in various energy levels around the nucleus
Neutrons
Neutral subatomic particles grounded in the nucleus
Atom Number
Number of protons located in the nucleus
Atomic Mass
Average mass of all known isotopes of an element
Isotope
Variants of a particular chemical element
An electrically neutral atom will have the ____ of electrons and proton.
same number
How many protons would a positively charged isotope ion of O-18 have?
8;
The number of protons depends only on the atomic number and is independent of the ionic charge and the isotope type. Since oxygen has an atomic number of 8, it has 8 protons.
How many protons would a negatively charged isotope ion of C-14 have?
6;
The number of protons depends only on the atomic number and is independent of the ionic charge and the isotope type. Since carbon has an atomic number of 6, it has 6 protons.
Catalysts
Control the rate of chemical reactions, or reactions in which atoms react to come to a stable state.
Increase reaction rates by lowering activiation energy
Chemical reactions can be increased by _____, and reduced by _____ ?
promoters, inhibitors
Given reactants (X and Y), a catalyst (C), and a product (Z), order the following stepps in the general catalytic reaction process.
XYC –> CZ;
CZ –> C + Z;
X + C –> XC;
Y + XC –> XYC
X + C –> XC;
Y + XC –> XYC;
XYC –> CZ;
CZ –> C + Z
How does a catalyst increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
By lowering the activation energy.
Reaction rates are increased when activation energy decreases.
Arrangement of the periodic table into columns and rows is credited to
Gregor Mendeleev
Henry Moseley
Proposed the periodic table can be arranged by atomic number, NOT mass
Orbital shells
This gives the following order for filling the orbitals:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, (8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, 8p, and 9s);
Coeffiecients 1, 2, and 3 refer to the first three rows of the periodic table and are the primary shell of numbers for each row.
s and p refer to subshells of electrons within each shell.
The sum of all of the raised numbers equals the number of electrons found within the neutral atom for that element.
Examples of electron configurations for certain noble gases include:
Helium = 1s2; Neon = 1s2 2s2 2p6; Argon = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3s6
Orbital shells
The sum of all of the raised numbers equals the number of electrons found within the neutral atom for that element.
Example:
Neon = 1s2 2s2 2p6 = 10
Electronegativity
The measure of an atom’s attraction on electrons in a chemical bond
Ionization energy (ionization potential)
Energy required to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion
Chemical bonding
Chemical merging of atoms due to their electron arrangements.
Metalloids
Located next to the stair-step on the periodic table
Transitional properties between metals and non-metals; possess mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties
May accept or donate electrons readily
Periodic table families
1st - alkali family, 2nd - earth alkali, 3rd - Transition metals, 4th - Basic metal, 5th semi-metals, 6th - non-metals, 7th - halogens, 8th - noble gases, 9th - Lanthanides, 10th - Actinides
Within a given family on the periodic table, atomic radii _____ while electronegativity _____ .
increase, decrease
Which groups on the periodic table contain most metalloids?
13, 14, 15.
Metalloids are on the stair step before other non-metals
Metals (characteristics)
Conduct electricity, and cool and heat fast
Non-metals (characteristics)
Do not conduct electricity, and are slow to heat and cool
Globular proteins
Built from amino acids that form chains ranging from a few dozen to thousands of members.
Proteins that are water soluble.
External factors that affect enzymatic reactions:
Temperature,
pH,
Substrate concentration
ph
Measure of hydrogen ion concentration within a solution
Substrate
A molecular surface acted upon by an enzyme
Metabolic pathways
Chemical reactions within a cell
Chemical reaction involving enzyme (E), product (P), and substrate (S) [formula]
E + S –> ES –> E + P
T/F
Enzymes participate in a limited number of chemical reactions throughout the human body.
False
T/F
Enzymes act to lower the activation energy of chemical reactions.
True
T/F
An enzyme can reshape itself when placed in contact with a substrate.
True
T/F
The amino acid structure of an enzyme is important to its function
True
pH scale
Used to measure the strength of acidic and base solutions
Acid
<7
Base
> 7
What compound is recognized as the standard neutral between acids and base?
Pure H2O at 25 degrees C
Logarithmic scale
pH = - log (ah)
Example: pH = - log (ah) pH = - log (1 x 10^-3) pH = -(-3) pH = 3
Blue litmus paper turning red, indicates
acid
Red litmus paper turning blue, indicates
base
Find the pH value of a solution that is 1 part per 10,000
pH = 4, acid
pH = - log (ah) pH = - log(1 x 10^-4) pH = -(-4) pH = 4
H+
10^-1: pH = 1
10^-5: pH = 5
10^-14: pH = 14
OH-
10^-13: pH = 1
10^-5: pH = 9
10^-1: pH = 13
10^-0: pH = 14
Chemical bonding typically occurs through
Ionic and covalent methods
Ionic bonding
Electrical attraction between ions of opposite charges
Covalent bond
Sharing of electrons between atoms
Hydrocarbon
Divided into subcategories: saturated and unsaturated
Alkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons; are the most basic.
Consisting of single bonds, and are saturated w/hydrogen
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Alkenes
Has one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms
Isomers
Containing two or more molecular structures
Alkane variations by number of carbon atoms
1 - methane, 2 - ethane, 3 - propane, 4 - butane isobutene, 5 - pentane isopentane, 6 - hexane, 7- heptane, 8 - octane, 9 - nonane, 10 - decane
Alkene variations by number of carbon atoms
1 - XXXXX, 2 - ethene, 3 - propene, 4 - butene, 5 - pentene, 6 - hexene, 7- heptene, 8 - octene, 9 - nonene, 10 - decene
Alkyne variations by number of carbon atoms
1 - XXXXX, 2 - ethyne, 3 - propyne, 4 - butyne, 5 - pentyne, 6 - hexyne, 7- heptyne, 8 - octyne, 9 - nonyne, 10 - decyne
Cation
Metallic ion;
Positively charged
Anion
Nonmetallic ion;
Negatively charged
Lewis structures (Lewis dot diagrams)
Provide visual representation of covalent bonds between atoms of a molecule
Product
Results of a chemical reaction
Reactants
Substances being used to create a product in a chemical reaction
Oxydation
Donation of an electron to produce a more positive ion
Reduction
Involves electron acceptance to produce a more negative ion
T/F
pH neutralization is an important oxidation-reduction reaction
False;
pH neutralization is an important acid-base reaction
T/F
Metabolism is an important oxidation-reduction reaction
True
T/F
Combustion is an important acid-base reaction
False
T/F
Photosynthesis is an important acid-base reaction
False;
Oxydation-redux
T/F
Water is a non-polar molecule
False;
Water is a polar molecule
Polar molecule
A molecule that possess both positive and negative atomic structure
Specific heat
Energy required to raise one unit of mass of a substance by 1 degree C
Universal solvent
Water
T/F
Water serves as the standard for pH and has a value of 6
False
T/F
The maximum density of water is 4 C
True
T/F
Water has the standard electronegative value on the periodic table
False
T/F
The Kelvin temperature scale is based on water’s triple-point
True
Heat
Flow of energy due to a difference in temperature
Phase transition
Alteration of the physical state between a solid, liquid, and gas
Decrease from base units
deci, centi, milli, micro, nano
Milli
mm,
mg,
ml
Micro
um,
ug,
ul
Nano
nm,
ng,
nl
Deca
dam,
dag,
daL
Hecto meter, gram, liter
hm,
hg,
hl
Kilometer, gram, liter
km,
kg,
kl
One mile
1.61 km
Kilo
1000 x, or 10^3
Hecto
100 x, or 10^2
Deca
10x, or 10^1
Deci
.1x, or 10^-1
Centi
.01x, or 10^-2
milli
.001x, or 10^-3
micro
.000001x, or 10^-6
nano
.000000001x, or 10^-9
One inch
2.54 cm
One yard
.91 m
One pound
.45kg
One foot
.305m
One ounce
28.35 g
One gallon
3.785L
One square inch
645.2 sq millimeters (mm2)
One square foot
.093 sq m (m2)
One square mile
2.59 sq km (km2)
One fluid ounce
29.57ml
One cubic foot
.028 cubic meters (m3)
One cubic yard
.765 cubic meters (m3)
Formula for volume of cylinder
V = h x pi x r^2
Volume of cube / prism
V = L x W x h
Area of a square
A - S^2 (S being one side of the square)
Area of a triangle
A = 1/2 b x h
Perimeter of a rectangle
P = 2L x 2W
Circumference of a circle
C = Pi x r 2
Pi
3.14 or 22/7
Yards to
Meters
Miles to
Kilometers
Inches to
Centimeters
Gallons to
Liters
Fluid ounce to
milliliters
Feet to
meters
How many feet in a mile
5280
Fahrenheit
1.8 (C) + 32
Celcius
F -32 / 1.8
Metric base units
meter (m),
gram (g),
liter (L)
Increase from base units
deca,
hector,
kilo
Systolic Pressure
Top number in blood pressure reading.
Measures the amount of pressure that blood exerts on arteries and vessels while the heart is beating.
Blood vessels are contracted
Diastolic Pressure
Bottom number in blood pressure reading.
Pressure that is exerted on the walls of the various arteries around the body in between heart beats when the heart is relaxed.
Blood vessels are relaxed
The specific stage of meiosis during which a cells chromosome number is reduced by half is
Anaphase I;
During anaphase I, the homologous chromosome separate and thus the number of chromosomes (ploidy) is reduced by two
Seaweed –> Snail –> Fish;
Using the food chain above, which of the following terms best represents the trophic level seaweed?
Photoautotrophic;
This implies that sunlight is used to perform photosynthesis, which is the basis of the energy cycle
During vertebrate embryogenenesis, the CNS originates from which germ layer?
Ectoderm:
Both the skin and nervous systems originate from this layer
Which of the following electrolytes controls water balance in the human body?
Sodium:
Sodium controls the osmosis of the water by increasing or decreasing osmolarity and therefore controls water balance
Which of the following cellular organelles contains its own unique genetic material and carries out protein synthesis separate from cytoplasm?
Chloroplast;
Lysosome contains enzymes to break down waste molecule
What is a chemical property of water?
Water can be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen gas
T/F
Photosynthesis only occurs in plants whereas oxidative respiration occurs in all life forms
False:
Photosynthesis occurs in many prokaryotes and eukaryotes whereas oxidative respiration occurs only in aerobic prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Balance the chemical neutralization of:
Mg(OH)2 + HCl –>
MgCl2 + H2O
Which of the halogens reacts most readily with the metal sodium?
A) Iodine
B) Bromine
C) Chlorine
D) Astatine
Chloride:
It is the smallest of the list of halogens
The cause of cell differentiation is that different cells…
Express alternate genetic information (different subsets of genes)
The concentration of hydrogen ions in water with a pH of 7 is
10^-7M
Phenotype
Is the external manifestation of the alleles. Different eyes color in a person indicates variability in the genotypes of each eye
In a liquid state, the arrangement and motion of molecules can be described as
Closely packed in a random pattern with constant rapid motion. The rapid motion is due to their thermal energy.
The most inclusive taxonomic category smaller than class is…
Order
In a chemical reaction, a metal will become a…
Cation by losing electrons
T/F
Mutations that happen in body cells other than egg and sperm cells will not transmit to the child
True;
Only germline mutations are transmitted
What type of chemical bond is bound in the molecule NH3 (amonia)?
Polar covalent bond;
Nitrogen is more electronegative than hydrogen leading to an unequal sharing of electrons
T/F
Evaporation is an endothermic process
True;
Evaporation absorbs energy
T/F
Sublimation is an exothermic process
False
It is an endothermic reaction
T/F
Vaporization is an exothermic process
False
It is an endothermic reaction
T/F
Condensation is an endothermic process
False
It is an exothermic reaction
The use of an electron microscope would most benefit the study of…
…the structure of cellular organelles
When an enzyme is degraded into its monomeric structural unit, the monomers will be
Amino acids;
Amino acids are protein constituents, and enzymes are proteins
Intron
A certain region removed from a mature transcript of DNA to RNA in a eukaryotic cell
What is the function of the spleen in a healthy adult?
Degrades red blood cells
The function of RNA in eukaryotic cells is to…
Provide the template for protein synthesis
CO2 levels decrease and the blood pH increases, causing constriction of blood vessels and hypoxia during
Hyperventilation;
Blood vessel constriction occurs due to increased alkalinity of blood
Plasmids
Small, circular portions of DNA not associated with the nucleoid.
Nucleoid
The condensed DNA of a cell
Different coat colors between breeds of cats are examples of genotype, or phenotype?
Phenotype.
Principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. Pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of gas.
Boyle’s Law
V1 / V2 = P2 / P1
Boyle’s Law (at constant temperature)
Mendel’s Laws of Genetics and the Punnett Square
Alignment of parent chromosomes in the Punnett Square to assist in determination of the offspring’s traits.
ROY G BIV
Mnemonic for visible wavelengths from long to short:
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
