Schunk Ch 5 Flashcards
______________ theories focus on how people attend to environmental events, encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory, store new knowledge in memory, and retrieve it as needed.
Information processing theories
_____________ begins when a stimulus input impinges on one or more senses.
Information processing
Sensory register
a
Perception
pattern recognition
STM
short-term memory
WM
working memory; short-term memory is a working memory; working memory is our memory of the immediate consciousness and performs two critical functions–maintenance and retrieval. WM is limited in duration. If not acted upon quickly, information in WM decays. It is also limited in capacity. It’s been suggested that the capacity of WM is 7 plus or minus two items, where items are such meaningful units as weds, letters, numbers, and common expressions.
LTM
long-term memory (permanent memory)
rehearsal
a
primacy effect
recalling best the initial items learned
recency effect
recalling best the last items learned
levels (depth) of processing theory
conceptualizes memory according to the type of processing that information receives rather than its location. Different ways to process information (such as levels or depth at which it is processed) exist: physical (surface), acoustic (phonological, sound), semantic (meaning).
Three Levels of Levels (Depth) of Processing
physical (surface), acoustic (phonological, sound), semantic (meaning).
two-store model
assumes information is processed first by the sensory register, then by working memory (WM), and finally by long-term memory (LTM)
activation level
a
dichotic
relating to or involving the presentation of a stimulus to one ear that differs in some respect (as pitch, loudness, frequency, or energy) from a stimulus presented to the other ear
spreading activation
means that one memory structure may activate another structure adjacent (related) to it
filter (bottleneck) theory
incoming information from the environment is held briefly in a sensory system
feature-integration theory
individuals distribute attention across many inputs, each of which receives low-level processing
___________, ____________, and _________ are three aspects of deliberate, conscious cognition.
attention, categorization, and memory
attention
is a limited resource…. is selective because of the bottleneck–only some messages receive further processing…. Learners allocate attention to activities as a function of motivation and self-regulation.
Perception
refers to attaching meaning to environmental inputs received through the senses.
phi phenomenon
apparent motion resulting from an orderly sequence of stimuli (as lights flashed in rapid succession a short distance apart on a sign) without any actual motion being presented to the eye
Phenomenology
the study of the development of human consciousness and self-awareness as a preface to or a part of philosophy
2
a (1) : a philosophical movement that describes the formal structure of the objects of awareness and of awareness itself in abstraction from any claims concerning existence (2) : the typological classification of a class of phenomena
Sensory
1 Of or relating to the senses or sensation.
2. Transmitting impulses from sense organs to nerve centers; afferent.
Gestalt psychology
the essence of this theory is that objects or events are viewed as organized wholes. in the Gestalt view, learning is a cognitive phenomenon involving reorganizing experiences into different perceptions of things, people, or events. This theory postulates that people use principles to organize their perceptions. Some of the most important principles are figure-ground relation, proximity, similarity, common direction, simplicity, and closure.
Principle of Proximity
elements in a perceptual field are viewed as belonging together according to their closeness to one another in space or time.
Principle of Similarity
Elements similar in aspects such as size or color are perceived as belonging together.
Principle of Common Direction
implies that elements appearing to constitute a pattern or flow in the same direction are perceived as a figure.
Principle of Simplicity
states that people organize their perceptual fields in simple, regular features and tend to form good Gestalts comprising symmetry and regularity.
echoic memory
hearing
iconic memory
vision
Bottom-up Processing
In this type of processing, physical properties of stimuli are received by sensory registers and that information is passed to working memory (WM) for comparisons with information in long-term memory (LTM) to assign meanings.
top-down processing
refers to the influence of our knowledge and beliefs on perception.
template matching
theory that holds that people store templates, or miniature copies of stimuli, in long-term memory (LTM)
templates
miniature copies of stimuli
prototypes
are abstract forms that include the basic ingredients of stimuli.
feature analysis
A view/theory; one learns the critical features of stimuli and stores these in long-term memory (LTM) as images or verbal codes.
Verbal learning researchers commonly employed three types of learning tasks: _______, _________, and _______.
serial, paired-associate, and free-recall
serial learning
people recall verbal stimuli in the order in which they were presented
serial position curve
The serial position effect, a term coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item’s position within a study list.[1] When asked to recall a list of items in any order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best (the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).[2][3]
paired-associate learning
one stimulus is provided for one response item.
free-recall learning
learners are presented with a list of items and recall them in any order.
Control (executive0 processes
direct the processing of information in WM, as well as the movement of knowledge into and out of WM
Rehearsal
repeating information to oneself aloud or subvocally
Episodic memory
includes information associated with particular times and places that is personal and autobiographical.
Semantic memory
involves general information and concepts available in the environment and not tied to a particular context
Declarative memory
involves remembering new events and experiences
Procedural memory
is memory or skills, procedures, and languages. Information in procedural memory is stored gradually–often with extensive practice–and may be difficult to describe.
contiguity
the quality or state of being contiguous, proximity; contiguous—being in actual contact, touching along a boundary or at a point
__________ ________ is content addressable.
Human memory
___________ are location addressable.
Computers
Encoding
is the process of putting new (incoming) information into the information processing system and preparing it for storage in LTM.
proposition
is the smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false.
Declarative knowledge
refers to facts, subjective beliefs, scripts, and organized passages.
Procedural knowledge
consists of concepts, rules, and algorithms. the knowledge of how to perform cognitive activities.
Conditional knowledge
is knowing when to employ forms of declarative and procedural knowledge and why it is beneficial to do so.
Schema
is a structure that organizes large amounts of information into a meaningful system. is a large network that represents the structure of objects, persons, and events.
Elaboration
is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one knows.
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating information over and over
elaborative rehearsal
relating the information in something already known
ACT theory
ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) network model of LTM with a propositional structure. ACT-R is a model of cognitive architecture that attempts to explain how all components of the mind work together to produce coherent cognition. ACT is an activation theory that specifies that a production system (or production) is a network of condition-action sequences (rules) in which the condition is a set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
subject-predicate link
an association in which one node constitutes the subject and another node the predicate
relation-argument link
an association where the relation is verb (in meaning) and the argument is the recipient of the relation or what is affected by the relation
Elaboration
the process of adding information to material to be learned
spreading activation
Spreading activation is a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks. The search process is initiated by labeling a set of source nodes (e.g. concepts in a semantic network) with weights or “activation” and then iteratively propagating or “spreading” that activation out to other nodes linked to the source nodes. Most often these “weights” are real values that decay as activation propagates through the network. When the weights are discrete this process is often referred to as marker passing. Activation may originate from alternate paths, identified by distinct markers, and terminate when two alternate paths reach the same node.
production system
is a network of condition-action sequences (rules), in which the condition is the set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
