SCD Chapters 1-5 Flashcards
Single subject line
A wide variety of research designs that use a form of experimental reasoning called baseline logic to demonstrate the effects of the independent variable on the behavior of individual subjects.
Problems with Group Experiments
- Data does not Representative of Individual Performance.
- Group Data Masks Variability
- Absence of Intrasubject Replication (replicating effects with individuals is lost).
Group Data Masks Variability
a) Hides variability that occurs within and between subjects.
b) Statistical control should not be a substitute for experimental control
c) To control effects of any variable, must either hold it constant or manipulate it as an independent variable.
Analysis of Behavior
Defining features:
- Behavior is an INDIVIDUAL phenomenon.
- Behavior is a CONTINUOUS phenomenon.
Assumptions:
- All is Behavior is DETERMINED
2) Behavioral VARIABILITY is EXTRINSIC to the organism
Baseline
Data collected in the absence of the treatment (independent) variable.
Purpose of Baseline
- Comparison to the treatment condition.
- Establish stability before treatment- controlling confounds.
- Examining variability for possible interventions (look at conditions on high/low days).
- Establish criterion for reinforcement.
- Establish need for intervention
Priori theory vs. SCD
A. Traditional Psychology -> Theory-driven, Top-down, or Deductive.
B. Behavior Analytical approach -> Grounded theory, bottom-up theorizing, or Inductive research.
Functional Relation
a specific change in one event (the dependent variable) can reliably be produced by specific manipulations of another event (the independent variable), and that the change in the dependent variable was unlikely to be the result of other extraneous factors (confounding variables).
Baseline Logic
Baseline logic: Refers to the REASONING in SINGLE-CASE design.
- ) PREDICTION : The ANTICIPATED OUTCOME of an unknown measurement. Where you think the measurement will go.
- ) VERIFICATION : Demonstrating that the PRIOR level of BASELINE would CONTINUE if the IV is REMOVED .
- ) REPLICATION : Demonstrating that REPEATING the presentation of the IV results in SIMILAR RESPONDING as before.
Dependent Variable
- The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
- The level of the behavior being measured is dependent on the presence or absence of the other variable.
Often, it is synonymous with the measurement system being used to record behavior.
Independent Variable
A) a variable whose variation does not depend on that of another.
B) The experimental factor that is MANIPULATED; the variable WHOSE EFFECT is being studied.
Extraneous Variables
ANY VARIABLES other THAN the INDEPENDENT variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
Any variables other than those being studied.
Confounding Variables
Variables that have UNCONTROLLED INFLUENCE on the DATA PATTERN and make interpretation of the data path difficult if not impossible. - e.g. time of day, different teachers.
Internal Validity
- confidence that changes to the DV were the RESULT of the IV and NOT extraneous variables.
- Experiments that demonstrate clear functional relationship.
- Eliminates or reduces the possibility that factors other than the independent variable produced the behavior change (i.e., controls for confounding variables).
Threats to Internal Validity
1) HISTORY Effects - sleep deprivation, health problems.
2) MATURATION Effects - normal developmental processes.
3) TESTING Effects - bx change due to being exposed to testing/material.
4) INSTRUMENTATION Effects - software glitch/poorly trained observers.
5) REGRESSION towards the mean - data “outliers” conform when retested.
6) PARTICIPANT SELECTION BIAS - issue in group designs.
7) SELECTIVE ATTRITION of PARTICIPANTS - participant dropping out.
8) INTERACTION AMONG SELECTIVE ATTRITION - above confounds effect participation in study
History Effects (threat to Internal Validity)
Extraneous EVENTS occurring OUTSIDE of the RESEARCH SETTING have an EFFECT on participant’s RESPONSES. (e.g. Sleep deprivation, out of school tutoring, substitute teachers)
Maturation Effects (threat to Internal Validity)
1) maturing over time, normal developmental processes.
2) the possibility that ANY NATURALLY OCCURRING CHANGE within the individual is RESPONSIBLE for the RESULTS ( particularly in long experiments).
Testing Effects (threat to Internal Validity)
CHANGES in BEHAVIOR that occur WHEN EXPOSED to a TESTING situation. When the test alerts a subject in a way that affects their response to the experimental treatments.
Instrumentation Effects (threat to Internal Validity)
Two Forms:
1) MALFUNCTIONS in SOFTWARE/HARDWARE being USED to RECORD behavior.
2) Behavior being recorded by observers can result in inaccurate representations of responding (i.e., Observer drift).
Regression towards the mean (threat to Internal Validity)
UNLIKELY OUTCOMES (outliers) occurring with a normal distribution tend NOT to REOCCUR when RESAMPLED.
**In ABA there is no such thing as an outlier– all behavior occurs for a reason.
Participant Selection bias (threat to Internal Validity)
UNINTENDED differences BETWEEN the PARTICPANTS in DIFFERENT groups. (found in group comparisons not SCD)
Selective Attrition of Participants (threat to Internal Validity)
refers to INDIVIDUALS DROPPING OUT, or being removed from, a study for some systematic reason that is unrecognized by the researcher. (more common in group designs).
Uncontrolled Baselines and Two Concerns
Adopt EXISTING ENVIRONMENT as the context for establishing baselines. (e.g. walk into a classroom and begin observing).
Two Concerns: Floor and Ceiling effects:
- Occurring at zero levels or near zero.
- Occurring at very high rates.
Controlled baseline
Hold events constant except the variable that is the focus of comparison between baseline and intervention.
Disadvantage: not natural, low ecological value
Steady State
1) Behavior occurring in a highly predictable pattern.
2) a Stable pattern.
For ethical reasons NOT used when addressing behaviors such as SIBs – extending baseline observations.
External Validity
A. Degree to which RESULTS are GENERALIZABLE to OTHER subjects, settings, levels of independent variables, or behaviors.
B. The degree to which a functional relation found reliable and socially valid in a given experiment holds under different conditions.
** External validity is a matter of degree, not an all-or-nothing property.
Replication
Replication is the REPETITION of the OBSERVED CHANGE in the DV with FURTHER MANIPULATIONS of the independent variable.
a) ABAB is most common means of replication.
b) Multiple baseline, changing criterion, alternating treatments use the same logic as ABAB
Two Goals of Replication
- REDUCES PROBABILITY that a CONFOUNDING VAIABLE is present and RESPONSIBLE for change.
- DEMONSTRATES RELIABILITY of change.
Direct Replication
Duplicate exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment. (The independent manipulations).
** demonstrates reliability of a functional relation.
a. INTRASUBJECT Direct Replication (ABAB with a participant).
b. INTERSUBJECT Direct Replication
Intrasubject Direct replication
Uses SAME SUBJECT to establish reliability of functional relation.
AKA: Intraparticipant replication.
Intersubject Direct replication
A. The repetition of an experiment with a second participant. (same setting, time, teachers).
B. Uses DIFFERENT but similar subjects to determine generality (same age, similar repertories).
AKA: Interparticipant replication.
ABA - Majority of studies are Intersubject Direct.
Systematic Replication
Researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of an earlier experiment.
1) Can demonstrate reliability and external validity of earlier findings.
2) Can alter any aspect: subjects, setting, administration of independent variable, or target behaviors.
Systematic Replication: Two Forms
1) VARIATIONS in EXPERIMENTAL PREPARATIONS can be introduced WITHIN a particular experiment. (slight variation in task).
2) VARIATIONS can occur ACROSS experiments to:
a) replicate previous experimental results.
b) elaborate and/or refine previous research findings
Direct Replication vs. Systematic Replication
Direct Replication
- The exact same experimental preparation (i.e., IV, DV, experimental procedures, participant population, etc.) Is repeated with an order between research participants.
Systematic Replication
- Some aspect of the experimental preparation is changed (different dependent measures, different ages, different disability, etc.) and it’s effect on behavior analyzed
When to Replicate
1) Novelty of the finding, especially if the finding is new and un-replicated. (provides integrity check).
2) Context of experimental findings: If a large body of literature already exists, there is less of a reason to replicate. (more replications / less needed).
3) Familiarity with the experimental preparation: adding in new techniques or working in new settings, and then comparing results to evaluate the new techniques or new settings.
4) Existence of alternative explanations for a finding: when looking to clarify the effect of an independent variable, may require a new dependent variable
Prediction
Behavior WILL CONTINUE at its PRESENT level UNLESS ACTED UPON by some outside force (Steady State Responding).
- The longer the period of measurement, the more reliable the prediction.
Practice Effect
IMPROVEMENT in performance RESULTING FROM opportunities to PERFORM a behavior REPEATEDLY so that baseline measures can be obtained
Verification
The PROCESS OF ESTABLISHING that the OBSERVED CHANGE in behavior is FUNCTIONALLY RELATED to the IV.
a) Process of confirming the original prediction - the baseline will remain steady in the absence of some independent variable.
b) Reduced the probability that some confounding variable is responsible for the change.
Affirmation of the Consequent
If the independent variable is not applied, the behavior will not change from baseline. Therefore, if the behavior changes then the independent variable is applied, the independent variable is the controlling variable for the behavior.
Affirmation of the Consequent Three step form of reasoning:
begins with a true antecedent - consequent (if A-B) statement and proceeds as follows: 1. If A is true, then B is True. 2. B is found to be true. 3. Therefore, A is true
Verification allows affirmation of two Consequents
- The independent variable controls responding when it is applied.
- Baseline conditions control responding when they are applied
Reversal
The MOST COMMON MEANS of VERIFICATION and all forms of verification utilize a variant of reversal.
A. In MULTIPLE baseline, verification is established using the baseline for the second behavior, subject or setting.
B. In CHANGING criterion, verification is established by an extended criterion phase or a return to a previous criterion.
C. In ALTERNATING treatment design, each data point under a treatment verifies previous predictions from preceding data points.
Social Validity
- Shows CHANGES made to the BEHAVIOR were SIGNIFICANT to the INDIVIDUAL.
- The PROCEDURES used were HUMANE and CULTURALLY ACCEPTABLE.
Type I Errors
False Positive: REPORTS a FUNCTIONAL relationship when there ACTUALLY was NOT one.
Type II Errors
False Negative: REPORTS NO FUNCTIONAL relationship when there ACTUALLY WAS one.
Demonstrative analysis
DEMONSTRATES a particular FUNCTIONAL relation.
1. Will the IV alter the DV?
(will modeling fluent speech decrease a child’s disfluencies?)
Comparative Analysis
COMPARING INDEPENDENT variables in relation to a set of dependent variables (same set of behaviors).
1. Will IV 1 or IV 2 alter the dependent variable to a greater degree?
2. Comparing competing interventions
(Will interventions from FBA improve problem behavior more than a Arbitrarily Selected intervention?)
a) Which is more effective based on overall level of behavior change and how rapidly the change occurs (D->A vs.D->C).
b) Causes of behavior can be discovered.
Parametric Analysis
An experiment designed to DISCOVER the DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS of a RANGE of VALUES of an independent variable. (increase or decrease the value of the IV).
- What effect will incremental increases in the level of the IV have on the DV?
- Some dimension of the independent variable is systematically increased or decreased. (e.g. amount, magnitude, density)
Component Analysis
IDENTIFY the ACTIVE ELEMENTS of a multicomponent treatment package.
- “Pulling apart” independent variables.
- What aspect of the IV is necessary.
- Helpful in finding out WHAT makes IV work, and WHY it works?
Comparing Types of Experimental Questions
A. Will the independent variable alter the dependent variable?
B. Will IV 1 or IV 2 alter the dependent variable to a greater degree?
C. What effect will incremental increases in the level of the independent variable have on the dependent variable?
D. Will removal of one element from a multicomponent intervention change the level of the dependent variable?
Phase Change
The independent variable is FUNDAMENTALLY changed. (e.g. from baseline to intervention.)
- people confuse phase change & condition change.
Condition Change
ONE ELEMENT of the IV is CHANGED but the BASIC NATURE of the independent variable REMAINS the SAME. e.g., change in reinforcement density, change in criterion. Minor changes
Data Path
Connection of successive data points with straight lines that represent the path of the data over time.
The level and trend of behavior between successive data point.
Scale Break
Indicates DISCONTINUITY in TIME or APPLICATION of the dependent variable.
Baseline Patterns: Variable
When baseline levels are HIGHLY VARIABLE, CONTINUE BASELINE to until stability (variability around same mean).
a) look for source of variability.
b) consider ethics of withholding intervention until stability is reached.
Confounding variables can be viewed as related primarily to one of four elements of an experiment:
subject(s),
setting,
measurement of the dependent variable
measurement of the independent variable.
