Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Study for exams > Sat biology > Flashcards

Sat biology Flashcards

0
Q

Optimal temperature

A
  1. the temperature at which any operation, such as the culture of any special microorganism, is best carried on.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
1
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A

In order to be maintained:

Allies frequencies in a pop remain constant from gen to gen and a Popul is maintained in equilibrium as long as certain assumptions are met

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

The development of a number of different species from a common ancestor as a result of differing environment mental pressures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Homologous structures

A

Share a common ancestry, and may perform different functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Analogous structures

A

Not inherited from a common ancestor but perform similar functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Molecular clock

A

The rate of change in a gene overtime

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What does P and Q represent in Hardy-Weinberg problem?

And the formula

A

P= frequency of dominant allele

Q= frequency of recessive allele

Formula: P + Q = 1

P^2 + 2pq + q^2= 1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Gene flow

A

Also called migration

The change usually bring genetic variation that once did not exist

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Genetic drift

A

Changes in the gene pool caused by random events in a small Popul

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Population bottleneck/ effect

A

An event that reduces size of a population; which can lead to random changes in the Popul’a gene pool

Surviving Popul is no longer genetically representative of the original Popul

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Founder effect

A

Establishment of a new Popul by a few original “founders” after the the loss of the general Popul

Based on only a few individuals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Gene pool

A

A collection of all available genes in a population that are able to be passed down from parents to offspring

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Types of natural selection:

Stabilizing

Directional

Disruptive

A

The play of forces that determines the relative reproductive performance of various genotype in a population

The favors of one extreme phenotype over the mean or other extreme

Selection against the average individual in a population

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Classification and subdivisions

A

Kingdom; phylum; class, order; family ; genus; species

Mnemonic: King Phillip Came Over For Good Sushi

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Board categories of organisms

A

Heterotrophic aerobes (amoebae, earthworms: humans)

Heterotrophic anaerobes (yeast)

Autotrophic aerobes (green plants)

Autotrophic anaerobes (chemosynthesis bacteria)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Symbiosis

A

the living together of two dissimilar organisms, as in mutualism, commensalism, amensalism, or parasitism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Stoma

A

The dense fluid within the chloroplast in which CO2 is converted into sugars

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Isotopes

A

Atoms of 1 element that vary only in # of neutrons in the nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Ionic bond

A

Electrons are transferred

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Anion bond (a negative ion)

A

An atom that gains electrons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Polar - polar attraction

A

Two or more atoms form. Bond, results are either polar (unbalanced) or non polar (balanced)

Negative = to one positive polar

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Hydrogen bonding

A

Keeps the two strands of DNA bonded together , forming double bonding

Causes water molecules to stick together and is responsible for many special characteristics about water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Nonpolar molecules

A

Weakest attractions exist between nonpolar molecules

I.e: CO2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Isomer

A

Compounds with the same molecular formula, but with different structures

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Opposite of dehydration synthesis

Breakdown of a compound with the addition of water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Chitin

A

Found in animals

Makes up the exoskeleton in Arthropods and cell walls in mushroom

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Polymers/monomers

A

Chains of repeating units

Individual units of polymers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Prokaryotes

A

No nucleus or other internal membrane

Bacteria are P

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Eukaryotes

A

Have a nucleus and are more complex cells

Human cells are E

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

A system of membrane channels that traverse(travel across) the cytoplasm

Rough ER:

Studded with ribosomes = the site of protein synthesis; transport throughout the cytoplasm

Smooth ER:

Synthesizes steroid hormones and other lipids

Connects rough ER to the Golgi apparatus

Detoxifies the cell

Carbohydrate (glycogen) metabolism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Modify, store, and package substances produced in the rough ER.

Secretes these substances “ to other parts of the cell and to the cell surface for export to other cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Lysosomes

A

Principal site of intercellular digestion

Cell continually renews itself by breaking down and recycling cell parts.

*plant cells don’t have lysosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Vacuole/ vesicle

A

(Contractile vacuoles) Pump excess water out of the cell

Vesicle: tiny vacuole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Two types of structure:

Microtubules: think hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella and spindle fibers ; formed by protein tubulin

Microfilaments: made of the protein actin. And help support the shape of the cell :

Animal cells dorm cleavage furrow during division

Amoeba to move by sending out pseudopods

Skeletal muscles to contract by sliding along myosin filaments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Centrioles and centrosomes

A

Centrioles= 9 triplets

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Cilia and Flagella

A

Cilia and flagella= 9+2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Solvent

A

The substance that does the dissolving

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Solute

A

The substance that dissolves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Hypertonic

A

Having a greater concentration of solute than another solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Hypotonic

A

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Isotonic

A

Two solutions containing equal concentrations of solute

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Active transport

A

Different active transport

Contractile vacuole
Exocytosis
Pinocytosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Egestion

A

Removal of undigested waste

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Irritability

A

Ability to respond to stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Loco motion

A

Moving from place to place (animal cells only)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Mitosis phases

A

Prophase ,Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase

PMAT

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Interphase

A

Order of the stage: G1, S, G2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Meiosis 1

A

Homologous pairs separate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Meiosis 2

A

Sister chromatids separate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Glycolysis

A

Produces Peruvian acid and a small amount of ATP

getting ready for the start of the Krebs cycle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

The Krebs cycle

A

Produces a small amount of ATP

Carbon dioxide

NADH and FADH2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

NAD and FAD

A

Carry H+ (protons) from the Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Reduction

A

The gain of electrons or protons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Light and photosynthetic pigments

A

Red and blue light absorbed while yellow and orange light are reflected

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Light dependent reaction

A

To produce energy and protons for the light-independent reactions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Light-independent reactions (dark reactions)

A

To make sugar (PGAL)

Rubisco enzyme important for the Calvin cycle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Sex-linked

A

The father passed the trait to his daughters only

If female carries only mutates X linker gene, she will be a carrier (X-X)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

Characterized by blending

Example: LL CROSS WITH RR EQUEL TO ALL OVEAL WATERMELONS (RL)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Back cross or testcross

A

A way to determine whether an individual plant or animal showing dominant trait is homozygous dominant or heterozygous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

Applies when a cross is carried out between two individuals that are hybrid for two traits in separate chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Law of segregation

A

States that during the formation of gametes, the two traits carried by each parent separate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Mono hybrid cross

A

Cross between two organisms that each hybrid for a single trait

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Different RNA

A

Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries messages directly from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm during the making of protein

Transfer RNA (tRNA) it is shaped like a cloverleaf and carries amino acids to the mRNA at the ribosome in order to form a polypeptide. the triplet nucleotides of tRNA are complementary to the codons of mRNA and are called anticodons

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is structural. Along with proteins, it makes up ribosome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Gene regulation

A

Two types Operon:

Lac or inductive: normally turned off unless it’s actively induced or triggered to turn on by something in the environment

Promoter and the operator:

Promoter: binding site of RNA.polymerase; must always bind to DNA before transcription can take place, thus it is like a”on” switch.

Operator: binding site for the depressor; turn off the Lac Operon

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Gene mutations

A

Point mutation: base-pair-substitutions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Aneuploidy

A

Applied to having any abnormal number of chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

The three-domain classification system

A

Bacteria, eukarya, and archaea

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Eukarya in depth look

A

Protista, Fungi, Plants and animals

PFPA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Sponges

A

Consist of loose federations of cells, not tissue because the cells are relatively unspecialized ; possess cells that can sense and react to the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Germ layers

A

Ectoderm : outermost layer; comes the skin and nervous system including the nerve cord and brain

Endoderm: the innermost layer, becomes the viscera(guts) or the digestive system

Mesoderm: middle layer, becomes the blood, muscles, and bones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Bilateral symmetry

A

A complex structure, the body is organized along a longitudinal axis with right and left sides that mirror each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Radial symmetry

A

Opposite of bilateral symmetry;

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

How plants grow in primary growth

A

(Have meristem tissue, which helps a plant continuous grow; divide its cells)

Primary growth: is vertical; elongation if the plant down into the soul and up into the air

New cells are formed from the buds of shoots and the tips of the roots, and are raised to the growth layer, apical meristem.

Three zones of cells of primary growth:
Zone of cell division,

zone of elongation: cells in this zone elongate and are responsible for pushing root cap downward and deeper into the soil

zone of differentiation: undergo specialization into three primary meristems that give rise to three tissue systems in the plant: the epidermis, ground tissue, and xylem and phloem

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Secondary growth of plant growth

A

Means lateral growth or an increase in girth

Is responsible for a he enlargement of the truck. For each year of growth, around ring is added

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Adventurous roots

A

Aerial roots: trees that grow in swamps or salt marahes

Prop roots: some tall plants like corn have prop roots that grow above ground out from the base of the stem and help support the plant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Vascular tissue in plants

A

Transports water and nutrients up and down the plant. Two types: xylem and phloem

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Xylem

A

Has two elongated cells: tracheids and vessel elements

Xylem is what make up the stuff we call wood

Moves water and nutrients by transpiration, when evaporation of water from leave happens in the process it also pulls the water nutrients to the tallest leaf on the plant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Phloem

A

Sugar is stores in the roots. Unlike transport in the xylem, this process requires energy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Alternation of generation

A 
The gametophyte generation 
Is haploid (n)

The sporophyte generation is diploid (2n)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Antheridium

A

Structure that produced sperm m, develops on the gametophyte

81
Q

Archegonium

A

Structured that produces eggs,develops on the gametophyte

82
Q

Gametophyte

A

A haploid adult plant

83
Q

Microspores

A

Produced by small male cones and will develop into male gametophyte or pollen grains

84
Q

Megaspores

A

Produced by large female comes and will develop into female develops gametophyte

85
Q

Protonema

A

Branching, one celled thick filaments produced by germinating moss spores, become gametophyte in moss

86
Q

Sporangia

A

Located on the tip of the mature sporophyte, where meiosis occur, producing haploid spores

87
Q

Sporophyte

A

A diploid adult plant

88
Q

Sori

A

Raised spots located on the underside of sporophyte ferns, clusters of sporangia

89
Q

Locomotion

A

Movement from place to place

90
Q

Endoskeleton

A

Grows with the animal(bones)

91
Q

Ectotherm (also known as cold-blooded)

A

Heated from outside, the environment on the outside affects the activates of the cold-blooded organisms

92
Q

Endotherm (also called warm-blooded)

A

Maintaining a constant body temperature despite fluctuations in the environment temperature

93
Q

Nitrogenous waste

A

Substance need to be release from body including CO2 and water

Ammonia: very soluble in water and highly toxic; usually is release in organisms that live in water

Urea: excreted by earthworms and humans
In mammals, is formed in the liver from ammonia

Utica acid: excreted by insects, many reptile, and birds, with a min of water loss

94
Q

Liver

A

Produces bile that emulsified fats
Bile breaks down fats

Breaks down and recycles red blood cells

95
Q

Gallbladder

A

Stores bike that is produced in liver

Body can function well without a gallbladder

96
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

A process in which egg develops w/o being fertilized and the adults that result are haploid

97
Q

Hermaphrodites

A

Sessile( don’t move) animals can mate with any animal of their species. Both act as male and female, and both donate and receive sperm.

98
Q

Haploid

A

Is represented with n number of chromosome

99
Q

Types of asexual reproduction

A

Fission: the separation of an organism into two new cells. Ex: amoeba, bacteria

Budding: involves the slitting off of new individuals from existing ones. Ex: hydra

Fragmentation: (regeneration) occur when a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into new individuals. Ex: sponges, plabaria, sea star

Parthenogenesis: involves the development of an egg without fertilization. The resulting adult is haploid. Ex: honeybees, some lizards

100
Q

Female reproductive system

A

Follicular phase: follicles in the ovaries grow and releases increasing amounts of estrogens in response to (FSH)

Ovulation: secondary oocyte ruptures out ovaries in response to rapid increase in (LH) from the anterior pituitary. Ovulation occurs on about 14th day after menstruation

Literal phase: after ovulation, the cavity luteum ( the cavity of the follicle left behind) forms and releases estrogen and progesterone that thicken the lining of the uterus

Menstruation: if the placement of an embryo does not occur, the build up of the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed.

101
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

The process of sperm production is continuous process that begins at puberty and can continue into old age.

Requires meiosis

Start wiry diploid cell ( spermatogonium) lives in tiny tubules (seminiferous tubules) in testes

All four gametes become functional sperm

102
Q

Oogenesis

A

The production of ova, begins prior to birth. A female baby is born with all the primary oocytes she will ever have.

One primary oogonium cell produces only one active egg cell

A diploid cell forms haploid cells through meiosis

103
Q

Embryonic development

A

Three stages:

Cleavage: the rapid mitotic cell division of the zygote that begins immediately after fertilization. End of cleavage concludes with the production of a fluid filled ball of cells called blastula.

Gastrulation: the continuation of the process that began during cleavage. Including differentiation; rearrangement of the blastula to produces a three-layered embryo called a gastrula

The gastrula consists three differentiated layers called embryonic germ layers. Three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Organogenesis: process by which cells continue to differentiate, producing organs from the three embryonic germ layers, when done the embryo increases in size and becomes a fetus

104
Q

Ectoderm, endoderm mesoderm

A

Ectoderm: become the skin and nervous system

endoderm: viscera (lungs, liver, and digestive
mesoderm: muscle, blood and bones

105
Q

Embryo development in a nutshell

A

Zygote—> Cleavage—> Blastula—> Gastrulation—> gastrula—> organogenesis —> fetus

106
Q

Extraembroyonic membranes of the bird embryo

A

Chorion: lies under the shell and allows for diffusion of respiratory gases between the outside environment and the inside of the shell

Yolk sac: it encloses the yolk, the food for the growing embryo.

Amnion: it encloses the embryo in protective amniotic fluid

Allantois: it is analogous to the placenta in mammals. It is the conduit for respiratory gases to and from the embryo. It is also the place where the nitrogenous waste uric acid accumulates until the chick hatches

107
Q

Phagocytes

A

Gobble up invading microbes

108
Q

Interferons

A

Chemicals that released by the immune system to block against viral infections

109
Q

B lymphocytes

A

These produce antibodies against a specific antigen in what is called humoral response

110
Q

T lymphocytes

A

These fight pathogens by hand-to-hand combat in what is called a cell-mediated response

111
Q

Clonal selection

A

Fundamental mechanism in the development of immunity

Antigen enters and specific b or t lymphocytes are activated and clones itself thousands of times, and split to plasma cells and memory cells

112
Q

Plasma cells

A

These fight antigens immediately in what is called the primary immune response. That do not live long

113
Q

Memory cells

A

Remain circulating in the blood in small numbers for a lifetime

This secondary immune response is called immunological memory, which prevents you from getting any specific viral infection more than once

114
Q

Passive immunity

A

Which is temporary.

Antibodies are borrowed and do not survive for long

Ex: in the placenta, the mother passes on antibodies through beast milk that the newborn receives, and it is called colostrum( 100 percent antibodies

115
Q

Active immunity

A

Which is permanent

You make the anti-bodies yourself

An individual makes his or her own antibodies after After being ill and recovering or after given an immunization or vaccine

116
Q

ABO blood types

A

Antibodies circulate in the plasma of the blood and bind with ABO antigens in the event of an improper transfusion.

Before receiving transfusion of blood, the bloods of both the recipient and the donor are mixed, which is called cross-match

117
Q

*Autoimmune diseases

A

Cannot properly distinguish between self and non-self.

118
Q

Vesodilation

A

Enlargement of blood vessels

119
Q

Fixed action pattern

A

Innate, highly stereotypical behavior that, once begun, is continued to completion no matter how useless or silly looking.

FAP is started by external stimuli called sign stimuli. When stimuli are exchange between members of the same species( releasers)

120
Q

Habituation

A

One of simplest forms of learning in which an animal comes to ignore a persistent stimulus so it can go about its business

121
Q

Imprinting

A

Learned that occurs during a sensitive or critical period in the early life of an individual and is irreversible for the length of that period. The response disappear until the offspring can survive w/o the parent

122
Q

Chemical Cycles: water cycle

A

The water cycle: water evaporates from earth, forms clouds, and rains over the oceans and land.

Water mostly evaporates from plants by transpiration

123
Q

Nitrogen cycle

A

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: live in the nodules in the roots of legumes and convert free nitrogen (n2) into ammonium ion (NH4+)

Nitrifying bacteria: concerts the ammonium ion (NH4+) into nitrites (NO2-) and then into nitrates (NO3-)

Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates (NO3-) into free atmospheric nitrogen (N2)

Decomposers are bacteria that break down dead organic matter, like dead plants and animals, into ammonia (NH4+)

124
Q

R-strategists

A

Organisms reproduce rapidly when the environment is uncrowned and resources are vast. Ex: insects

125
Q

K-strategist (k for carrying capacity)

A

Tend to maximize population size near the carrying capacity for an environment.

126
Q

Phosphorus

A

An necessary element for nucleic acid structure and in providing energy to cells. It also plays an important role in membrane structures

127
Q

Sulfur

A

Forms the sulfide bridges that are found in proteins

128
Q

Molecule containing only a single type of atom

A

It’s called an element

129
Q

Peptide bond

A

New bond between amino acids

130
Q

Peptide bond

A

Form by dehydration synthesis

131
Q

Protein can also be refer to

A

Polypeptide

132
Q

Saccharide

A

Refers to sweetness of a carbohydrate

133
Q

Monosaccharides( whole group of carbohydrates)

A

Has the ratio of 1:2:1

Equal carbon atoms and oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms are twice the both of either both

Glucose and fructose

134
Q

The link up of only two monosaccharides

A

Results in a carbohydrate made of two monomers : disaccharide (di=two)

135
Q

Disaccharides

A

Need to know: maltose and sucrose

Maltose: two molecules of glucose ; removal of water

Sucrose: known as table sugar; molecules of glucose combines with molecule of fructose in a dehydration synthesis reaction.

136
Q

Polysaccharides ( glycogen, starch…

A

Monosaccharides joined together exceeds two

To know: starch, glycogen, and cellulose ( all are polymers of glucose)

Glycogen: the form in which animals (human) store glucose

Starch: the form in which plant store glucose

Cellulose: a structural polysaccharides that forms the plant’s cell walls

137
Q

Monomer for lipid

A

Hydrocarbon

138
Q

Hydrophobic ) does not like water)

A

Also called nonpolar

139
Q

Three common forms in which lipids are found in the body

A

Triglycerides: (three fatty acids) a fatty acid is just a long hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl

Phospholipids

Cholesterol: made from hydrocarbons from rings; only found in animal cells ( in cell membranes along with phospholipids)

Estrogen, testosterone and progesterone are derived from cholesterol

Found in body tissues and blood

140
Q

Bacteria walls

A

Made from protein and sugar

141
Q

Simple diffusion

A

The molecules must be hydrophobic (does not like water)

142
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Molecules that move are hydrophilic (does like water) and need assistance from special membrane proteins

143
Q

Hydrolyze (break)

A

For some process in the cell will BREAK the bond between the second and third phosphate molecules on ATP; this releases the energy

144
Q

ADP

A

The remaining molecule of phosphate after the energy require molecule for processes are released

145
Q

Electron carries

A

A small amount of ATP is made, but most of the energy is stored as electron

146
Q

Reduced

A

An “empty” electron carrier accepts a pair of electron

147
Q

Oxidized

A

The newElectrons that are given up later on

148
Q

Glycolysis

A

Sugar splitting. One molecule of glucose is split in half to produce two molecules of pyruvate ( essentially half of a glucose molecule

Occurred with oxygen ( anaerobic)

149
Q

The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC)

A

When oxygen is available, glycolysis can produce more reduced electron and more ATP. (Group of enzymes that prepares pyruvate to enter the next step of cellular respiration: the Krebs cycle.

150
Q

Coenzyme A

A

kerbs cycle accepts two carbon atoms, but pyruvate contains three carbon atoms, thus the PDC is to remove one of the carbon atoms, and the result is it leaves the body as CO2

151
Q

Every glucose molecule

A

Get two pyruvate molecules and therefore two acetyl co- a molecules

The Krebs cycle require oxygen. (Aerobic process)

152
Q

Electron transport

A

An aerobic process

Oxygen known as the final electron acceptor because it is the last molecule in the electron transport chain to accept electrons

153
Q

Charged substance

A

Can cross membranes only by facilitated diffusion

Get positive charged molecules ( hydrogen) back to the membrane by the ATP SYNTHASE ( special protein)

154
Q

Fermentation

A

Regenerating empty election carriers in the absence of oxygen

155
Q

Remember for exam (ATP)

A

The only ATP you get from fermentation are the two net ATP from glycolysis. So instead of a big 36 ATP per glucose from aerobic cellular respiration, only two ATP per glucose are produced

If lactic acid levels get too high the muscle cells stop contacting

156
Q

From DNA to protein making

A

First transcription (copy) DNA TO RNA , then translate RNA to the coding or wording of amino acids

157
Q

Types and function of RNA

A

mRNA: carry the information from the nucleus to the ribosomes in to he cytoplasm

rRNA: interacts with the cell’s ribosomes to make them functional

tRNA: transfer RNA carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes during protein synthesis

158
Q

How translation works

A

There are two binding sites on a ribosome: p-site and a-site ( the first codon is in the P-site (peptide, the bonding), so the second codon is in the A-site (amino acid, the next amino acid is added to the growing protein)

159
Q

Independent assortment of chromosomes

A

The way that the chromosomes line up during metaphase affects that outcome of the genetic information in gametes that form

160
Q

Linked genes

A

Genes are on the same chromosome are called linked genes

161
Q

Interphase

A

Between cell division, packed chromosomes replicate. The cell grows and performs normal cellular activity

162
Q

Prophase in mitosis

A

Chromosome begin to condense and become visible. C made of two identical pieces of DNA, and each piece of DNA is called chromatid. A spindle begin to separate. Also membrane of the nucleus disperses (spread)

163
Q

Prophase in meiosis

A

Same events occur as in mitosis. In addition, the chromosomes pair with those homologous partners and exchange DNA (cross over)

164
Q

Prometaphase in mitosis

A

The centrioles are now at opposite end of the cell, and the spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the individual chromosomes

165
Q

Pro metaphase in meiosis

A

The only difference is that the spindle fibers from each centriole attach to one chromosome of a matching homologous chromosome pair

166
Q

Metaphase in mitosis

A

The chromosome line up along the metaphase plate. The spindle fibers begin to tug each chromatid toward the opposite ends of the cell

167
Q

Metaphase in meiosis

A

The only difference is that chromosome pairs line up on the sides of the metaphase plates

168
Q

Anaphase in mitosis

A

Theft bees pull the chromatids towards opposite ends of the cell

169
Q

Anaphase in meiosis

A

The chromosome pairs separate. Both halves of the chromosome move toward the other end of the cells. The sister chromatids do not separate like they do in mitosis

170
Q

Telophase in mitosis

A

The chromatids, which have now turned back into chromosomes, are at the ends of the cell. A new nuclear membrane forms

171
Q

Telophase in meiosis

A

The division in a male sperm cell is equally divided. In a female, most of the cell’s cytoplasm will be concentrated in one f the two cells. The larger cell will divide again and the smaller cell will degenerate

172
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The rest of the cell divides

173
Q

In meiosis only

A

A second round of these phases occurs. The important difference is in interphase 2, where the chromosomes do NOT replicate

174
Q

Autosomes

A

Will always be comprised of two copies: one copy is inherited from the father. The traits expressed in these autosomal genes are generally unaffected by gender, and the trusts will follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance

175
Q

The law of dominance

A

Crossing of (tall pea plants and short pea plants) is called monohybrid cross, meaning the only trust is being studied. In this case was height.

One trait masks the effects of another trait

176
Q

Monohybrid cross

A

Breeding more than one trait, but the result is have 100% of one other than the other

177
Q

The law of segregation

A

In previous generation may have different traits from the second generation, their offsprings, due to the alleles separate and recombine during the cross

*alleles can segregate and recombine

178
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

Four alleles can combine to give us four different gametes

*traits can segregate and recombine independently of other traits

179
Q

Dihybrid cross

A

Cross between plants differ wrong in two characteristics

Multiply the asked variable to find probability (only with if results of one cross are not affected by the results of another

180
Q

The 16 offspring

A

9 tall and green

3 tall and yellow

3 short and green

1 short and yellow

9:3:3:1

181
Q

Sex-linked traits

A

A trait whose allele is carried on one of the sex chromosome

Almost all sex- linked traits have alleles that carried on the X chromosome

X-c is much larger than the y-c, as a result it Carey’s more genes

182
Q

X-linked traits to know:

A

Hemophilia (a disorder of blood clotting), color blindness and male pattern baldness

If a person, he or she, carries the trait, he or she carries it in the x-c

X-c is also recessive, thus it can also be called the X-linked recessive trait
Meaning female can only get hemophilia if she’s homozygous for the X chromosomes that carries the allele for hemophilia.

Females who are heterozygous for x-linked recessive traits are known as carriers

Male will express the trait in his phenotype if he carries the allele on his X chromosome. This x-linked recessive diseases are much more common in males than in females

183
Q

Recessive conditions

A

Skip generations

If neither the parents nor the offspring display the condition, the condition is recessive

184
Q

Dominant condition

A

If either the parents or the offspring of an affected individual are affect, the condition is dominant

185
Q

Sex-linked or autosomal (carried on one of the non-sex chromosomes)

A

The condition is sex-linked, simply count the number of males and females who are affected. If there are significantly more male than females affect, the condition is sex-linked.

186
Q

Female’s heterozygous or

A

If offspring of two individuals are affected the mother is usually heterozygous condition, meaning one of the chromosomes of the females is affected, this she is a carrier

187
Q

Male to make cant work

A

An x-linked recessive trait cannot go from father to son.

Only mother to son.. The father only gives the y-c to son

188
Q

Heterotroph hypothesis

A

A theory of how life began under these conditions ( hydrogen, ammonia, methane, and water) (no longer accepted idea)

189
Q

Heterotrophs

A

The first cells to be born. And heterotrophs can not make their own food

The desire of food, helped the heterotrophs evolved to autotrophs.

These early cells, anaerobic organisms

190
Q

The origin of life

A

Today’s atmosphere contains mostly nitrogen and oxygen and the primary organism on the planet are aerobic

Earth’s early atmosphere DID NOT contain oxygen. If contained mostly hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water, and the primary organisms at that time were anaerobic

191
Q

Yeasts

A

are fungi= eukaryotes (have nuciei and organelles

192
Q

Fungi

A

heterotroph. absorptive feeders. secrete hydrolytic enzymes that digust their food outside their bodies

193
Q

Asexual spores

A

spores are kind of like seeds that can drop off the fungus and grow a new organism

194
Q

Sexual spores

A

fungi can produce sexual spores (kind of like sperm and ova) that combine to form a new organism

195
Q

Vegetative growth

A

in this type of reproduction, a portion of the fungus breaks off and forms a new fungus

196
Q

Budding

A

a new fungus grows off the side of the old fungus. An example of a fungus that reproduces in this way is yeast.

197
Q

Lysogenic cycle

A

The viral genome Is not immediately transcribed, translated, and replicated.

It’s inserted (integrated) into host’s genomes, packaged into the new viral capsids

Once replicated the virus is also replicated

Once illness, goes to lytic cycle.

198
Q

Animal viruses

A

Viruses that infect animal cells do not necessarily have to lyse (host is broken open by special vital enzyme) them to escape

Stays longer alive

(Lysing a cell kills it instantly, and if the cell dies, viral production stops)

As virus bud out (Layer of membrane around the capsids is called and envelope)

199
Q

RNA Genomes

A

Can not use DNA polymerase to replicate (DNA Polmerase copies only DNA).

Needs RNA polymerase.

Can’t use the host’s RNA polymerase

                    The virus must

Need special enzyme that makes a strand of RNA by reading an RNA template- RNA- dependent RNA polymerase.

-carry the enzyme with it in its capsid and object it into the host along with its genome

Or

  • synthesize the protein during translation of the viral genome ( a part of the normal viral life cycle)

Study for exams (8 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions