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Psych > Sac 2 - Memory and learning > Flashcards

Sac 2 - Memory and learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

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2
Q

What is memory?

A

An active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information

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3
Q

What is synaptogenesis?

A

The formation of a synapse between neurons

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4
Q

Neural plasticity

A

The ability of the brains neural structure or function to be changed throughout the lifespan, generally through experience. Neural plasticity is the basis of learning and memory. During learning and memory, changes occur at the synapse.

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5
Q

Long term potentiation

A

Refers to the long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections. This results in more effective synaptic transmission between the neurons. The post-synaptic neuron becomes more and more responsive to neurotransmitters released by the pre-synaptic neuron.
- ‘cells that fire together, wire together’

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6
Q

Long term depression

A

Refers to the long lasting decreasing in strength of synaptic connections. This results from a continued lack of stimulation between neurons. The post-synaptic neuron becomes less and less responsive to neurotransmitters released by the pre-synaptic neuron.
- ‘use it or lose it’

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7
Q

Ethical considerations (little albert)

A
  • voluntary participation
  • informed consent
  • withdrawal rights
  • confidentiality
  • debriefing
  • psychological or physiological harm
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8
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messages provided by neurons and released into the synaptic gap.

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9
Q

Neurohormones

A

Chemical messages produced by neurons. However, they are released into the bloodstream, then carried to other neurons or cells.

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10
Q

Glutamate

A

Enhances neural transmission by making post synaptic neurons more likely to fire. Plays an important role in synaptic plasticity, and it promotes the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons. A lack can lead to LTP.

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11
Q

Adrenaline

A

Can enhance the long term consolidation of emotional memories. This means that emotional memories are more likely to be strengthened/ strongly remembered.

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12
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two different stimuli. Three phases:

  • before conditioning
  • during conditioning
  • after conditioning
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13
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

A stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occuring, automatic response.
- Pavlov’s experiment - food

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14
Q

Unconditioned response

A

A reflex is an involuntary response that is predictably caused by the UCS.
- Pavlov’s experiment - salivation to food

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15
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Stimuli that does not produce a predictable response.

- Pavlov’s experiment - bell

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16
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

Stimulus that was neutral, but after conditioning produces a response similar to UCR.
- Pavlov’s experiment - bell

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17
Q

Conditioned response

A

Learned response produced by the CS. Same as UCR, but is produced by CS alone.
- Pavlov’s - salivation by dog with bell alone

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18
Q

4 conditioning responses

A
  1. Before conditioning: UCS - UCR
  2. Before conditioning: NS - No response
  3. During conditioning: NS + UCS - UCR
  4. After conditioning: CS - CR
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19
Q

Classical conditioning - Acquisition

A

The overall process during which an animal or person learns to associate the NS with the UCS

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20
Q

Classical conditioning - Stimulus generalisation

A

When a person or animal responds to the CS only and not any other stimulus that is similar

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21
Q

Classical conditioning - Extinction

A

The slow decrease in strength of a CR. This happens because the UCS is no longer presented along with the CS

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22
Q

Classical conditioning - Spontaneous recovery

A

Occurs when the CR reappears when the CS is presented (after extinction) following a rest period. The CR tends to be weaker than it originally was.

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23
Q

Little albert experiment: ethical issues - Informed consent

A

Alberts mother did not know about the experiment.

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24
Q

Little albert experiment: ethical issues - Withdrawal rights

A

No records showed withdrawal rights for Albert even though he suffered clear distress.

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25
Q

Little albert experiment result

A

The fear response was never extinguished. Therefore it can be assumed that Albert suffered lasting psychological harm as a result of the experiment.

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26
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Type of learning where the consequences determine the likelihood that the behaviour will be performed again. An individual will tend to repeat a behaviour that has ‘good’ consequences, or will enable it to avoid ‘bad’ consequences.

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27
Q

ABC

A

A - Antecedent
B - Behaviour
C - Consequence

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28
Q

ABC - Antecedent

A

A stimulus that occurs before the behaviour

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29
Q

ABC - Behaviour

A

The voluntary behaviour by the individual that occurs due to the antecedent

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30
Q

ABC - Consequence

A

The consequence of behaviour has an affect on whether or not the behaviour happens again

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31
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Involves giving a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been given. Basically, a person/animal is given something desirable as a reward for doing something good.

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32
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, in order to strengthen behaviour.

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33
Q

Positive reinforcement example

A

Giving a dog a treat when it sits

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34
Q

Negative reinforcement example

A

Using an umbrella to avoid the rain

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35
Q

Positive punishment

A

Involves the introduction of a stimulus, thereby weakening the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again.

36
Q

Negative punishment/response cost

A

Involves the removal or loss of a stimulus, which weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.

37
Q

Negative punishment example

A

Losing your mobile phone as a punishment

38
Q

Positive punishment example

A

Running extra laps due to being late to training

39
Q

Operant conditioning - stimulus generalistation

A

Occurs when the correct behaviour/response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced.

40
Q

Operant conditioning - stimulus discrimination

A

Occurs when an organism makes the correct behaviour/response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus.

41
Q

Operant conditioning - extinction

A

The slow decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response following ongoing non-reinforcement of the correct response.

42
Q

Operant conditioning - spontaneous recovery

A

Occurs after extinction, when the person/animal once again shows the desired response to the stimulus, despite no reinforcement.

43
Q

Operant conditioning examples

A

Stimulus generalisation - A dog is conditioned to sit when you clap your hands, and then sits when you click your fingers.
Stimulus discrimination - Dog only sits on clapping of hands.
Extinction - Dog doesn’t sit when hands are clapped because the sitting is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery - Dog sits again when you clap hands (after extinction), despite still not being reinforced.

44
Q

Difference between classical and operant conditioning

A

Operant conditioning is usually a voluntary response, the learner is active and the consequence determines whether behaviour is strengthened or weakened. Classical conditioning is an involuntary reflex response and the learner is passive.

45
Q

Observational learning

A

Occurs when someone uses observation of a models behaviour, and the consequences of that behaviour, to guide their own future behaviour. There are five processes involved.

46
Q

Observational learning - Attention

A

In order to learn through observation, an individual must pay close attention to a models behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.

47
Q

Observational learning - Retention

A

An individual must be able to accurately remember the models behaviour.

48
Q

Observational learning - Reproduction

A

An individual must have the ability to put into practice what they observed.

49
Q

Observational learning - Motivation

A

The individual must be motivated to perform the behaviour they observed.

50
Q

Observational learning - Reinforcement

A

The reinforcement of the behaviour influences the motivation of whether to reproduce that observed behaviour. This can refer to either reinforcement of the model’s behaviour or the observer, when they perform the behaviour.

51
Q

Observational learning - ARRRM

A 
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement
52
Q

Sensory memory

A

The entry point of memory, where new, incoming sensory information is stored for a very brief period of time.

53
Q

Iconic memory

A

Refers to visual sensory information, which is stored for between 0.2-0.4 seconds.

54
Q

Echoic memory

A

Refers to auditory sensory memory, which is stored for 3-4 seconds, to allow us to make sense of speech. If we pay attention to information in sensory memory it is transferred to short term memory.

55
Q

Short-term memory

A

A memory system where all information is stored for a short period of time. Short-term memory is the place where all conscious reasoning reasoning, thinking and planning takes place. Also known as ‘working memory’.

56
Q

Duration of short-term memory

A

12-18 seconds, can be up to 30. Capacity of STM= 7+2 items (5-9) items.

57
Q

Long-term memory

A

Stores a potentially unlimited capacity amount of time for perhaps forever.

58
Q

Explicit memory - episodic

A

Involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously retrieved. Episodic memory is the memory of events that you personally experienced. EG - birthday party

59
Q

Semantic memory

A

The memory of facts and knowledge around the world, including general knowledge and the meaning of words. EG - 10+5=15

60
Q

Implicit memory - procedural

A

Involves memory that doesn’t require conscious retrieval. Procedural memory is the memory of motor skills and actions that have previously been learnt. EG - how to ride a bike

61
Q

Cerebral cortex in memory

A

The wrinkly outside layer of the brain. Long- term explicit (semantic and episodic) memories are distributed throughout the cerebral cortex.

62
Q

Hippocampus in memory

A

Located in the temporal lobe. It is essential for the consolidation of long-term explicit memories (turning short-term memories into long-term memories).

63
Q

Amygdala in memory

A

Involved in the formation of emotional memories.

64
Q

Cerebrum in memory

A

Involved in the encoding and storage of implicit memories. It is vital for the learning and execution of motor skills.

65
Q

Recall

A

Involves reproducing information that is stored in memory. EG - a short-answer question on a test

66
Q

Free recall

A

Involves reproducing as much information as possible without the use of any specific cue or order.

67
Q

Serial recall

A

Involves reproducing information in the order in which it was learnt, or the order in which it happened. EG - Name Australian prime ministers in the order they were elected

68
Q

Cued recall

A

Involves the use of cues to assist with the retrieval of information.

69
Q

Recognition

A

Requires identification of the correct information from amongst alternatives that include correct information. EG - A multiple-choice question on a test

70
Q

Relearning

A

Involves learning information again that was previously learned. If information is learned more quickly the second time, therefore some information must have been retained from the first learning experience.

71
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Occurs when an individual is unable to form memories after the trauma occurs. The individual loses the ability to form or store new long-term memories, although they can often form new implicit memories. They are generally able to retrieve memories from before the trauma. It is often found to be associated with damage to the hippocampus.

72
Q

Damage to the hippocampus

A

Unable to form new explicit long-term memories. Still able to form implicit memories and STM is normal.

73
Q

Damage to the amygdala

A

Unable to recall emotional qualities of memories. Doesn’t affect STM or implicit memory.

74
Q

Damage to the cerebral cortex

A

Varied results, left hemisphere can result in logic and language issues, right hemisphere can result in struggles with visual material like face recognition.

75
Q

Damage to cerebellum

A

Loss of conditioned motor responses and reflexes.

76
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

A type of dementia. It is characterised by the widespread deterioration of brain neurons, which causes memory decline, gradual loss of cognitive and social skills and changes in personality.

77
Q

Context dependant cues

A

Environmental cues in the situation where a memory was formed that act as retrieval cues to help access the memories. Can include sights, sounds or smells.

78
Q

State dependant cues

A

Associated with an individual’s physiological and/or psychological state at the time of memory was formed. You are more likely to remember information if you are in the same ‘state’ when you learned it.

79
Q

Serial position effect

A

A finding that free recall is better for items at the end and beginning of a list than for items in the middle of the list. The primary effect describes superior recall at the beginning of a list. The recency effect describes superior recall at the end of a list.
Primary effect = long-term memory
Recency effect = short-term memory

80
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again so that it can be successfully retained in STM. This can increase the duration of STM.

81
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

The process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in LTM. This assists with its storage and future retrieval from LTM.

82
Q

Pre-synaptic neuron

A

The neuron that sends the impulse.

83
Q

Post-synaptic neuron

A

The neuron that receives the impulse.

84
Q

Action potential

A

An electrical charge that sweeps down the axon of a neuron, prompting the release of neurotransmitters.

85
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping separate items of information to form a larger single information unit so our STM can hold more than the usual 7 single items of information at any given moment.

86
Q

Eye-witness testimony

A

A statement from an individual who has viewed an event that consists of their personal recollection of that event.

87
Q

Leading question

A

A question posed to a witness that is phrased in such a way that it prompts or suggests the desired answer to a question.

Psych (4 decks)

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