russia and the soviet union 1917-1941 Flashcards
1
Q
how long had the Romanov family ruled Russia for?
A
300 years
2
Q
who was the Tsar in 1917?
A
Tsar Nicholas II
3
Q
A
4
Q
what happened in 1902 in Russia?
A
- there was a crash in the economy
- thousands of new workers lost their industrial jobs and this caused strikes
- in the countryside, there were poor harvests and peasants were close to starvation
5
Q
what did Russia get involved in in 1904?
A
a war with Japan
6
Q
what was the tsar’s opinion on war with Japan?
A
he thought if he won a quick victory, it would increase people’s faith in his government
7
Q
what was the result of the war with Japan in 1904?
A
Russia suffered a humiliating defeat
8
Q
what was the effect of losing to Japan in 1904 on the tsar?
A
it reinforced the view that the tsar was incompetent
9
Q
what happened in January 1905?
A
- the people’s dissatisfaction with the tsar was shown in a peaceful march in St Petersburg
10
Q
who led the peaceful march in January 1905?
A
a priest called Father Gapon (who was later found to be an Okhrana agent)
11
Q
what happened during the peaceful march in January 1905 to make it significant?
A
- the protest turned violent when the tsar’s army shot at protestors
- around 1,000 were killed or wounded
- called ‘Bloody Sunday’
12
Q
why might it have seemed that the Tsar was in a strong position?
A
- large army
- support of the secret police (Okhrana)
- power over the Duma
13
Q
what was the Duma?
A
the Russian parliament
14
Q
who was discontented with the tsarist regime and what did they want?
A
- peasants; wanted more land
- workers; wanted better conditions
- liberals; wanted more political freedoms
- nationalities; wanted independence from the empire
- radicals; wanted overthrow of the regime, revolution
15
Q
who was supportive of the tsarist regime?
A
- the army
- the Okhrana (secret police)
- conservatives
- the church
16
Q
what were problems facing peasants?
A
the peasants lived in poverty with rising population numbers making poverty worse and famines a frequent threat
17
Q
what did peasants believe was the answer to their poverty?
A
more land; they wanted the land of the landowner class
18
Q
what occurred through rural Russia in 1905?
A
peasant unrest; peasants burnt down landowner houses and took landowner land
19
Q
what was used to end peasant unrest in 1905?
A
brutal repression by the army
20
Q
how were peasants impacted by WW1?
A
- over 15 million peasant men called up to fight
- horses used for farming taken by army
- army requisitioned peasant crops
21
Q
where was Russia’s industrialisation concentrated?
A
in cities; often in huge factories employing thousands of workers
22
Q
what were living and working conditions like in cities?
A
terrible; homes were overcrowded and working conditions were unsafe (Long hours and harsh factory rules)
23
Q
what happened when workers went on strike?
A
factory owners would sack them or call the police or the army to break up the strike by force
24
Q
what did the industrial workers do in 1905?
A
joined with the middle-class liberals in a general strike that nearly overthrew the Tsar
25
why was life made harder in cities in WW1?
- economic problems meant many factories closed
- food prices rose
26
who was Karl Marx?
- a German writer who died in 1883
- predicted the workers would lead a revolution to create a communist society where everyone was equal
27
what were the different groups in Russia?
- radicals
- liberals
- conservatives
- ultra nationalists
- socialist revolutionaries
- social democrats
28
what did radicals want?
to overthrow the tsarist regime and the ruling classes
29
what did liberals want?
more political freedoms to prevent revolution
30
what did conservatives want?
to defend the interests of the gentry
31
what did ultra nationalists want?
to protect the Russian Empire
32
what did socialist revolutionaries want?
a new society based on the peasant commune
33
who were social democrats followers of?
Karl Marx
34
what two groups were social democrats divided into?
- Bolsheviks
- Mensheviks
35
what did the Bolsheviks think?
they believed they could lead the workers in revolution and help create communism on their behalf
36
what did the Mensheviks think?
they thought communism in Russia was a long way off because it was not yet industrialised
37
what military defeats did Russia face in WW1?
- Russia had world's largest army in 1914
- army was poorly led and badly equipped
- German generals were able to move their well-equipped and well-trained men around on efficient railway network and strike Russians where they were most vulnerable
- by 1917, large areas of the western Russian empire had been lost to Germany
38
what were the economic effects of WW1?
- extremely expensive
- Germany blocked Russia's trade routes
- factories starved of raw materials
- economic activity dropped
- taxes had to rise to help pay for war
- to raise more money, government arranged loans from allies (increasing national debt)
- government printed more money to pay for war
- inflation pushed up prices twice as fast as wages
39
what were the political effects of WW1?
- the Duma had supported war initially but ultimately criticised failures of Tsar's ministers
- in 1915, Duma requested that Tsar replace ministers with new ones supported by Duma
- Tsar refused to share power with the Duma
- in response, Duma became centre of opposition to Tsar's government
40
what were the social effects of WW1?
- conscription of 15 million men and horses meant food production dropped
-army requisitioned peasant crops and horses and prioritised railway for army
- less food for city populations and countryside = hunger and suffering
- as many as 6 million refugees fled German occupation in west, government struggled to find food and housing
- nationalist tensions increased
- economic problems meant factory closures and job losses
- unemployment and food shortages meant growing social unrest
41
why was the Tsar being commander-in-chief of the army problematic?
- in August 1915, Tsar took command
- ministers warned this was huge risk as people would blame him directly for further defeats
- Tsar left Petrograd in September 1915 to move to army headquarters
- left German wife, Alexandra, as regent (head of state in absence)
- lost respect of military elite and nobility
- no military training and away at war rather than in capital
42
why did the February Revolution occur in 1917?
- long-term discontent with government
- short-term triggers e.g. food shortages and demoralisation of army
43
when was there a demonstration in support of the Duma in 1917?
14th February
44
what occurred on the 18th February 1917?
strike at the Putilov Steelworks
45
what happened in late February 1917 which encouraged people to join street protests?
weather became unusually warm
46
when was International Women's Day in 1917 and what happened?
23rd February:
- women joined striking workers in anti-government demonstrations
- crowds grew ever larger when the government announced bread rationing might have to begin
47
how many people demonstrated from the 23rd-25th February 1917?
250,000
- crowds became too big for police to control
48
how many people were killed when soldiers were ordered to fire on demonstrators on the 26th February 1917?
40 people were killed
49
what did some regiments refuse to do on the 27th February 1917?
some regiments refused to obey orders to shoot
50
what did a military report to the Tsar on the 28th February 1917 declare?
Petrograd was out of control
51
what calendar did Russia use until February 1918?
Julian Calendar
52
what did Nicholas II do on the 22nd February 1917?
he left Petrograd for army headquarters 780km away
53
what did Nicholas II order the police and army to do on the 25th February 1917?
he sent an order to end unrest in Petrograd
54
why was Tsarina Alexandra unpopular as a regent?
she relied on the advice of the mystical healer Rasputin on how to govern (rather than the Duma)
55
what were some triggers for revolt for the February revolution in 1917?
- food shortages in Petrograd
- announcement of bread rationing
- International Women's Day march
- demonstrations in support of Duma
- unusually mild winter weather
- mutiny in the army
- contempt for the tsarina
- the tsar being away from Petrograd
56
what did the February revolution of 1917 succeed in doing?
forcing the abdication of the tsar
57
what did Russia become after the abdication?
a republic
58
what had been Nicholas' last chance o save his throne?
the Duma asked Nicholas to create a new cabinet involving Duma deputies
- could've saved throne by sharing some of his power
59
what was Nicholas' response to the Duma's request of a new cabinet?
he refused and ordered the Duma to dissolve
(most government ministers left Petrograd)
60
what did it mean for the Russian empire when Nicholas ordered the Duma to dissolve?
it had no real functioning government
61
what did half of the Duma do in regards to Nicholas' orders?
half of the Duma (the liberals) refused to follow Nicholas' orders and carried on meeting
- this new Duma bloc was called the Duma Committee and went on to set up the Provisional Government
62
what did army commanders suspect?
they could no longer rely on their troops to follow their orders
63
why was suppressing the revolution by force too risky?
because of the fear of army mutiny throughout the Russian Empire
64
what were the two options of army command?
1. use soldiers from outside revolutionary Petrograd to crush the revolution
2. work with the duma to find a political (non-violent) solution
65
why did using soldiers from outside Petrograd to crush the revolution not seem possible?
because of the army mutiny; other troops might mutiny too
66
what happened when trying to work with the Duma to find a political solution was put into action?
- army and Duma leaders met the Tsar in Pskov
- they suggested that the Tsar must voluntarily abdicate
67
where were leaders of revolutionary parties at the time of the February revolution?
- mostly living in exile
- Lenin was in Switzerland
- in Petrograd, revolutionaries scrambled to try to take control of unplanned revolution
68
what were revolutionary groups setting up at the same time as some Duma deputies were forming the Duma Committee?
the Petrograd Soviet
69
what is a soviet?
a committee of elected members (workers, soldiers and peasants)
70
who elected representatives to the Soviet?
across Petrograd, workers, soldiers and sailors elected representatives
71
who formed the Provisional Government when the tsar abdicated?
12 members of the Duma Committee
72
who approved of the setting up of the Provisional Government?
the Petrograd Soviet
73
who held meetings in the same place?
the Petrograd Soviet's executive and the Provisional Government
74
what parties were the politicians in the Provisional Government from?
most were either liberals or radical SRs
75
what did some of the Provisional Government's first acts include?
- releasing political and religious prisoners
- promising full democratic freedom
- ending the death penalty
- taking over land belonging to the tsar
- transferring power to zemstvos (local councils)
76
how did the Provisional Government feel about WW1?
they were determined to continue with the war
77
what were the 8 principles which the Petrograd Soviet wanted the Provisional Government to follow in return for their support?
1. amnesty for all political prisoners
2. freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, right to strike
3. no privileges of class, religion or nationality
4. elections for a Constituent Assembly
5. elected people's militia to replace all police units
6. local government to be elected
7. military units that took part in the revolution to stay together, keep weapons and not be sent to the front
8. off-duty soldiers to have same rights as citizens
78
what did the Petrograd Soviet have control over?
- communications
- many ordinary soldiers and sailors
- local efforts to improve food supplies
79
who was Alexander Kerensky?
- a member of Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet (liaised between them)
- became leader of PG in July 1917
80
what mistakes did Kerensky make when he became the leader of the PG in July 1917?
- continued to support the war (angered ordinary soldiers)
- acted against old ruling classes so lost support from conservatives
- failed to control Bolsheviks
81
when the PG and the network of soviets were both trying to govern Russia, what was it known as?
Dual Power/Control
82
what led to the PG's collapse in October 1917?
- Dual Power
- PG's weaknesses
83
what were the weaknesses and failures of the PG?
- lack of decisive leadership
- continuing to fight the war
- failure to improve the economy (no quick way to solve shortages)
- more democracy and free speech meant more criticism to government
- failure to provide more land for peasants
- lack of legitimacy (not elected like soviets)
- failure to hold general election
- Dual Power meant PG in very weak position and areas with no control over e.g railways/postal service
- lack of control over military
84
what made the PG's commitment to fighting the war even more problematic?
the June Offensive was a failure
85
why did the PG have a lack of control over the military?
- Order Number 1 meant Petrograd Soviet had final say on military matters, not PG
- continuing to fight war rather than only defending Russia's borders was very unpopular
86
what was Kerensky's position when the PG decided to attack German and Austrian forces in June 1917?
War Minister
87
why was the June Offensive a failure?
- 200,000 russian casualties
- further losses of Russian territory
88
what did Kerensky do after the June Offensive?
took over leadership of the PG from Prince Lvov
89
what was the PG's position like by August 1917?
seriously weakened
90
why was the PG seriously weakened by August 1917?
- soldiers angry because of June Offensive
- workers wanted Petrograd Soviet to be in charge as they would benefit
- peasants wanted a government that would give them land
91
who tried to seize power during the unrest in August 1917?
General Kornilov
92
when and why did Kerensky make Kornilov head of the army?
- July 1917
- to improve army discipline
93
what did Kornilov and Kerensky agree on?
that more soldiers were needed in Petrograd
94
what did Kornilov decide?
that Russia needed military rule; Kerensky saw this as a threat to the PG
95
when did Kornilov send troops to Petrograd with orders to shut down the Petrograd Soviet?
24th August 1917
96
what did Kerensky do to defend Petrograd from Kornilov's troops?
he allowed the Bolsheviks to arm their supporters
97
what were the Bolsheviks armed supporters called?
the Red Guards
98
what did railway workers do to Kornilov?
railway workers blocked Kornilov's route to Petrograd and Bolsheviks met the troops and convinced them not to attack
99
why did the Kornilov Revolt fail?
because Kornilov's soldiers were no longer following orders and also because Petrograd workers acted to defend their revolution
100
why was the Kornilov Revolt significant?
- it increased the popularity and influence of the Bolsheviks and weakened PG further
- Kerensky's plan to act as saviour of Petrograd backfired, people saw Red Guards as having defended Petrograd (not Kerensky)
- Bolsheviks had been predicting counter-revolution
- any trust soldiers had for officers was lost; the establishment of Red Guards to defend Petrograd gave Bolsheviks military advantage
- on 31st August, Bolsheviks won most seats in Petrograd Soviet election
101
when did Lenin return to Russia from Switzerland?
April 1917
102
why did the Germans help Lenin travel back through wartime Europe?
they hoped he would help knock Russia out of the war and give them fewer enemies to fight
103
what was the 'April Theses'?
in April 1917, Lenin set out a manifesto of how the working class should take control of Russia in a second revolution
104
what did Lenin's demands in the April Theses include?
- end the war (capitalist and imperialist conflict that threatened revolution)
- transfer all power to the soviets; at every level of government, local to national (PG shouldn't be supported)
- take land from rich landlords and give it to peasants through agricultural soviets
105
why did support for the Bolsheviks grow?
- Lenin's April Theses meant Bolsheviks had clear and powerful message for workers, peasants and soldiers
- Bolshevik newspapers in most Russian cities constantly criticised failures of PG
- Germans secretly sent money to Bolsheviks to fund campaigning
106
what were two powerful slogans that Lenin promoted for the Bolshevik party?
1. all power to the soviets
2. peace, land and bread
107
why was all power to the soviets one of Lenin's slogans?
Lena said all power to govern Russia should go to soviets:
- workers' soviets to run factories
- agricultural soviets to run rural districts
- regional soviets and city soviets
- congresses of soviets making decisions at national level
108
why was peace, land and bread one of Lenin's slogans?
it promised that if Bolsheviks had control over Russia, they would:
- end Russia's involvement in the war
- give land to the peasants
- end food shortages in cities
109
what were the reactions to Lenin's return?
- his April Theses were a shock to the Bolsheviks
- Lenin had to work hard to persuade colleagues that Russia was ready for a second revolution
- his forceful personality and command of Marxist theory won
110
what were the July Days?
riots and demonstrations against the PG (3rd July and 7th July 1917) turned into an uprising (July Days)
111
why did the uprising which became the July Days start?
- food shortages
- failure of the June Offensive
(Bolsheviks didn't start it)
112
why did the Bolsheviks join the demonstrations of the July Days?
Lenin believed the time could be right to overthrow the Provisional Government
113
why did the Petrograd Soviet not support the July Days?
its Menshevik members didn't trust the Bolsheviks
114
what did the Soviet agree to do?
help the PG
- troops were moved into Petrograd and put down the uprising
115
what happened to Bolsheviks after the July Days?
many were arrested as they were blamed for starting the revolt; Lenin escaped and fled back to Finland in disguise
116
when did Lenin decide it was time for the Bolsheviks to seize power?
October 1917
117
how many supporters did the Bolsheviks have by October 1917?
340,000 members:
- 60,000 in Petrograd including 40,000 armed Red Guards
118
when did Lenin secretly return to Petrograd?
10th October 1917
119
what did Kerensky try to do as rumours spread that the Bolsheviks were planning an armed takeover?
he tried to send Bolshevik-influenced army units out of Petrograd
120
what did Trotsky convince the Soviet to do?
Trotsky was the leader of the Petrograd Soviet and he convinced the Soviet to set up a Military Revolutionary Committee to bring together all the Soviet-supporting soldiers in Petrograd
121
when had most of Petrograd's regiments promised loyalty to the MRC?
by 21st October
122
what did Kerensky do on the 24th October?
he ordered a crackdown on the Bolsheviks
123
what did Kerensky's crackdown on the Bolsheviks on the 24th October involve?
- closing Bolshevik newspapers
- blocking river crossings between the city centre and working class districts
- calling for the arrest of the MRC
124
as head of the Petrograd Soviet, what did Trotsky use the MRC to take control of?
- road and canal bridges
- army headquarters
- telegraph offices
125
what did Kerensky resort to doing?
he travelled around Petrograd in a car, looking for any soldiers who would defend the PG from the Bolsheviks
126
when did the Red Guards seize more key areas of the city?
on the night of 24th-25th October
127
how much opposition did the Red Guards face as they began to seize power?
they faced almost no opposition
128
when did Bolshevik soldiers climb through windows of the Winter Palace and arrest the remaining members of the PG?
on the night of 25th-26th October
129
what was the reaction of many socialists after the Red Guards seized power?
many socialists left the Soviet in protest at the Bolsheviks' actions
130
what did Lenin form on the 26th October?
Lenin formed a Bolshevik government called the Council of People's Commissars
131
why was the October Revolution successful?
- Lenin was single-minded with a clear plan of attack
- Lenin made sure Bolsheviks were in charge (Not any other revolutionary group)
- Kerensky didn't take Bolshevik threat seriously enough after July Days
- Kerensky didn't disband the Red Guards after Kornilov Affair
- Trotsky was an amazing planner who formed Red Guards into effective fighting force
- PG had become very unpopular and no one stood up. to defend it
132
when did the Bolsheviks pass their early decrees?
at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets in November 1917
133
what were the 4 early decrees?
1. Decree on Peace
2. Decree on Land
3. Decree on workers' rights
4. Decree on Nationalities
134
what did the Decree on Peace consist of?
- 8th November 1917
- all countries should seek peace
- peace to be achieved without annexations or indemnities
135
what did the Decree on Land consist of?
- 8th November 1917
- land taken from wealthy landowners now belonged to the peasants
- in December, church land was nationalised too
136
what did the Decree on workers' rights consist of?
- November-December 1917
- Decree on Work = 8-hour day
- Decree on Unemployment = unemployment insurance for those unable to work
- Decree on Workers' Control = workers' committees now ran their own factories
137
what did the Decree on Nationalities consist of?
- November 1917
- all different peoples of the old Russian Empire could have their own governments
- however, these governments remained under Bolshevik control
138
what led to the abolition of the Constituent Assembly?
- Lenin had promised to hold general election for CA: however, SRs won with 53% of vote (Bolsheviks only got 24%)
- Bolsheviks declared a return to parliamentary democracy was backwards step when Russia already had soviets
- first meeting of CA after election on 5th January 1918; it refused to pass Bolsheviks' key decrees or accept principle of all power to soviets
- Lenin ordered Red Guards to shut it down after 1 day
- soon after, all political parties, apart from Bolsheviks, were banned
139
what was the Cheka?
- on 7th December 1918, Lenin set up the Cheka (the Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Speculation)
- Lenin said revolution under threat from class enemies of workers and peasants (burzhui or bourgeoisie)
- burzhui were people who had been middle/upper class before October revolution
- anyone suspected of being burzhui often attacked by Bolshevik supporters
- if anyone was denounced to Cheka as being burzhui, they would be arrested and their houses and property could then be taken by poor people
- Cheka became main way Bolsheviks used terror to consolidate hold over Russia/countries of old empire
140
when and why were the royal family executed?
- tsar and family kept prisoners by Bolsheviks
- in 1918 they were held in Yekaterinburg
- they were potential threat to Bolshevik power
- monarchists could use them to rally support for counter-revolution
- on 17th July 1918, as anti-Bolshevik forces were closing in on Yekaterinburg, the Bolsheviks executed Nicholas, his wife and children and 4 servants
141
what was the name of the treaty that allowed Russia to pull out of WW1?
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
142
why was there a need for peace with Germany?
- many Bolshevik supporters were soldiers and sailors who wanted end to war and 'breathing space' as Lenin had promised
- Lenin said 'We must make sure of throttling the bourgeoisie and for this we need both hands free.'
- ending war would mean Bolsheviks could concentrate all forces on wiping out political opponents within Russia
- Lenin and Trotsky certain there would soon be revolution in Europe and any treaty wouldn't have effect
143
what were some of the different views about peace with Germany?
- Left SRs wanted to continue war
- Lenin wanted to accept German terms and peace
- Trotsky wanted something in between
(Lenin won)
144
how did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk come about?
- Lenin gave Trotsky responsibility of negotiating treaty with Germans
- no other allies came to conference
- Trotsky demanded peace treaty with no losses to Russia
- Germans ended ceasefire and advanced into Russia
- seemed possible they could capture Petrograd
- Russians could do nothing to stop their advance
- Lenin demanded Trotsky get peace deal at any cost
145
when was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed?
3rd March 1918
146
what was the significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
Russia lost huge area of former Western territories: Ukraine, Baltic provinces, Finland, parts of Poland, Georgia; this meant loss of:
- 74% of Russia's coalminers and iron ore
- 50% of industry
- 26% of railways
- 27% of farmland
- 26% of population (62 million people)
and Russia had to pay Germany 300 million gold roubles
147
what were some positive reactions to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
- soldiers pleased war over; Russians/Bolsheviks relieved threat of German invasion over
- Bolsheviks believed German workers would be disgusted by harsh terms of treaty (reason for them to rise up like Russian workers)
148
what were some negative reactions to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
- Left SRs walked out of government in protest and assassinated German ambassador to try to re-spark war
- nationalists and conservatives horrified at losses; became vitally important for some to fight to stop Bolsheviks to save Russia from humiliation/destruction (began to form White armies)
149
what were the reasons for the civil war in Russia?
- huge territorial losses from Treaty of Brest-Litovsk appalled many Russians
- nationalists and conservatives had everything to lose from Bolsheviks' plans for workers'/peasants' Russia
- former moderates, Mensheviks and some SRs opposed Bolshevik dictatorship (wanted CA)
- Bolsheviks made enemies of 'Czech Legion'; 40,000 Czech troops who took control of Trans-Siberian Railway
- nationalities within old Russian Empire wanted to break away from Russian control
- monarchists wanted to reinstate tsar
150
what were the effects of the civil war on the Bolsheviks?
- terror tactics to ensure control; once enemy area captured, Cheka hunted down any suspected opponents and executed them
- harsh discipline to ensure obedience; Red Army deserters shot, if Red Army unit retreated, 1 in every 10 would be executed
- ideological victory; winning civil war against so many opponents strengthened Bolshevik belief in their revolution
- centralised control; war strengthened Bolshevik belief in highly organised control from centre
- Russia under threat; involvement of former allies like France and Britain made Bolsheviks fear foreign invasion
151
what were some key events of the civil war?
- General Yudenich led a White army from west, nearly capturing Petrograd, but was defeated by Red Army in October 1919
- Red Army fought a Green army made of peasants and others looking for freedom from government control
- General Denikin led a White army from south and was close to Moscow before being forced to retreat by Red Army in 1920
- Admiral Kolchak led a White army from east but was beaten by Red Army in 1919
152
what were Bolshevik strengths during the civil war?
- War Communism: introduced by Lenin to tackle economic crisis
- control of central Russia; shorter distances to supply their armies
- central Russia contained most of population (could be conscripted)
- control of most of Russia's industries (for weapons) and railways
- tactical alliances meant not having to fight everyone at once
- effective propaganda; constant message that only Bolsheviks would look after ordinary Russians
- Trotsky led Red Army and reintroduced discipline, making effective and unified fighting force
- conscription built Red Army up to over 5 million soldiers
153
what was Trotsky's role during the civil war?
- Trotsky appointed Commissar for War in 1918
- organised mobilisation of Red Army into huge fighting force
- realised Red Army needed experienced ex-tsarist officers and kept their families hostage to ensure loyalty
- Trotsky's commissars kept strict discipline in army and spread Bolshevik propaganda
- encouraged soldiers to learn to read and write and taught them about aims of Bolsheviks
- introduced Socialist Military Oath for Red Army soldiers to swear to encourage loyalty to Bolsheviks
154
what foreign intervention occurred during the civil war?
- British, French, Japanese and US soldiers sent to help Whites and defend allied weapons dumps which had been sent to help Russia by WW1 allies
- foreign interventions helped Whites for a while and made them seem stronger than they were
- Bolsheviks used foreign intervention as propaganda; urged Russians to help Reds prevent foreign invasion
155
what were the White weaknesses in the civil war?
- geographically very spread out (supplying White armies difficult)
- Whites didn't have large populations to conscript soldiers from; many troops would only fight for their area
- Whites didn't control many industrial areas so harder to supply armies
- Whites not popular with workers and peasants
- Whites didn't share same aims; monarchists, liberals and left wingers all disagreed about how they would run Russia
- no single White leader; leaders competed with each other
- fewer Whites than Reds; max. 250,000 soldiers
- foreign intervention to aid Whites was propaganda gift to Reds
156
what was the Red Terror?
a period of executions and arrests between September 1918 and February 1919
157
what was the role of the Cheka?
- Cheka grew rapidly during civil war: by 1919 it had 100,000 employees
- Cheka had enormous power: after 1918 the Cheka could arrest, imprison, torture or execute anyone they suspected
- possible that as many as 12000 people were executed by the Cheka between 1918 and 1920
158
what happened during the Red Terror?
- Lenin introduced the Terror after assassination attempt by an SR (Fanya Kaplan)
- Bolsheviks called on workers to report anyone who made remarks against soviets and their government
- these 'class enemies' often went to prison camps
- Red Terror grew rapidly in civil war
- as Reds won back areas from White control, Cheka was sent into area to arrest anyone suspected of supporting Whites or helping them in any way (many executed)
- Terror used in Red Army (Cheka shot deserters they recaptured)
159
how long did the Red Terror last?
from September 1918 to February 1919
(but it's methods never went away under Bolshevik dictatorship)
160
when did the Bolsheviks gain power?
October 1917
161
what was introduced in November 1917, to replace courts and lawyers?
Revolutionary Tribunals
162
what occurred in December 1917?
- liberal leaders arrested
- non-Bolshevik newspapers banned
- the Cheka established
163
when was the Constituent Assembly shut down?
January 1918
164
what decree was announced in February 1918?
'The Socialist Fatherland is in Danger' decree which allowed forced labour and execution for those who resisted
165
when were SRs and Mensheviks arrested?
June 1918
166
when was there an assassination attempt against Lenin?
Fanya Kaplan tried to shoot Lenin in August 1918
167
when did the Red Terror start?
September 1918
168
when were all other political parties banned?
1921
169
what happened in March 1921?
the Kronstadt Mutiny
170
what happened in 1922?
- show trial of leading SRs (carried out as an example to others)
- SRs deported
171
what happened during the Kronstadt Mutiny?
- the Kronstadt naval base guarded Petrograd
- it's sailors fought in February Revolution, July Days and October Revolution
- show to senior Bolsheviks when Kronstadt sailors rebelled against Soviet government on 28th February 1921
- like many former Bolsheviks, the sailors were sick of War Communism, the way the Bolsheviks requisitioned food, Red Terror and lack of political freedom
- Trotsky sent 50,000 Red Army soldiers to take back the base
- fierce fighting and took until 17th March for sailors to be defeated (500 executed by Cheka)
172
what did the Kronstadt Mutiny undermine?
it undermined the Bolsheviks' claim to be acting for the working classes and peasants; there were more protests against Bolshevik dictatorship and calls for 'soviets without Bolsheviks'
173
from 1918, what did the Bolsheviks call themselves?
The Communist Party
174
what did the Communist Party believe?
that the state should control the economy, society and culture of the Soviet Union from the centre
175
how did the Communist Party work?
- members of the Communist Party
elects
- Party Congress: decides policies of party
elects
- Central Committee: runs different areas of party
elects
- Politburo: makes big decisions for party
176
how did the Soviet government work?
- elected local soviets
elect
- All-Russian Congress of Soviets: makes national laws
elects
- Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom): runs government departments
177
how did the Soviet government and Communist Party work together?
they worked in parallel to rule Soviet Union but in reality it was the Communist Party that determined what the Soviet government did
178
what did the All-Russian Congress of Soviets become?
- a 'rubber stamp'
(agreed to whatever the government told it to)
179
what was the Soviet Union?
a centralised dictatorship
180
what did the Communist Party elect in 1919?
a five-man Politburo
181
who were the 5 members of the elected Politburo in 1919?
- Lenin
- Trotsky
- Zinoviev
- Kamenev
- Stalin
182
what did the Politburo become?
- a central committee that decided party policy
- their decisions determined what happened in the Soviet Union
- ultimately the soviets had no power at all
183
who were the candidates at elections?
- the Communist Party was the only political party so there was no politics choice
- therefore the only candidates at elections were Communist Party candidates
184
185
how was the USSR set up?
- was initially made up of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), the Belorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SFSR
- the communist parties that ran the other republics all followed the orders of the All-Union Communist Party from 1925 (led from Moscow)
- the parliament met infrequently, had very little power and all decisions were controlled by the party
186
when were the lands of the old Russian Empire reorganised into the USSR?
1924
187
what does USSR stand for?
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
188
when was war communism introduced?
1918
189
what did war communism do?
put the Russian economy under government control
(Lenin believed this was necessary if the Bolsheviks were to win the civil war)
190
what were some features of war communism?
- peasants weren't allowed to sell their crops; the Cheka requisitioned their crops for a fixed low price, and left the peasants a small amount for their own needs
- industries were nationalised and given production targets by the government
- people's rights and freedoms were restricted; strikes banned and any suspected political opposition was dealt with by the Cheka (Red Terror)
- money was abolished and people were paid in kind (in goods/services)
- labour conscripted (government forced people to work)
191
what was a result of grain/crop requisitioning?
- peasants tried to hide their grain
- peasants suspected of hoarding grain were shot
192
what was industrial production targeted at?
meeting military needs; production for consumers wasn't a priority
193
how did opposition change due to war communism?
opposition continued and increased e.g. Kronstadt Mutiny
194
what were the reasons for war communism?
- Bolsheviks needed control over industry to supply Red Army with weapons and resources
- Bolsheviks needed control over food supply in order to feed soldiers and workers
195
why did the Bolsheviks need control over industry to supply Red Army with weapons and resources?
- transport problems meant industries didn't get raw materials they needed
- workers started to leave cities; into Red Army or back to villages to find food
- the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant loss of 40% of Russia's industries
- after the October Revolution, banks stopped lending money to the government or industries
196
why did the Bolsheviks need control over food supply in order to feed soldiers and workers?
- the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant the loss of major food production regions
- the Whites controlled some key agricultural regions
- the collapse in industrial production meant there was nothing for the peasants to buy; peasants stopped growing crops to sell to the cities
197
what were the consequences of war communism?
- in 1920, farm production had fallen to 37% of 1913 levels
- numbers of people working in factories fell by half, and production halved
- food shortages turned into famine; people dying from starvation, in some areas people resorted to cannibalism
- industries were producing almost no consumer goods, increasing hardships in cities
- black market developed: illegal way of finding consumer products and food people needed, for high prices
- in areas Reds didn't control, where money continued to be used, prices rose
198
why did war communism have to be abandoned?
it was an economic disaster and deeply unpopular
199
what political crisis did war communism cause?
- factory workers organised protests and strikes over falling living standards and lack of food
- Kronstadt Mutiny linked to strikes in Petrograd: strikers had come to naval base to ask for help
- Communist Party members protested at the way they were excluded from decisions
- peasant uprising in Tambov Province
200
what was the NEP?
New Economic Policy
201
what were the reasons for NEP?
1. disastrous economic consequences of war communism
2. political opposition caused by war communism
202
what were features of NEP?
- free market reintroduced; peasants could sell produce and decide what price to sell at
- state stopped requisitioning grain/other crops from peasants; peasants paid tax on what they sold
- money reintroduced; workers paid wages again
- state kept control of big factories; small businesses/farms could be privately owned and run to make profit
- foreign experts brought in to improve how factories were run (experts paid more than ordinary workers)
203
what were the economic effects of NEP?
1. agricultural production increased as peasants began to produce more; grain production in 1921 was 37 million tonnes (had been 80 million tonnes in 1913)
2. industrial growth increased, but more slowly; shortage of industrial products kept them expensive but food became cheaper = 'scissors crisis', peasants stopped producing so much food, fears of more famine and government cut prices for industrial products
3. some traders (NEP men, NEP women) made profits from food/manufactured goods shortages; wealthier peasants also did well as they had most surplus produce to sell = led to inequality in USSR (not socialist)
204
what were the positive reactions to NEP?
- NEP popular with peasants and traders
- wealthier peasants did best but all peasants preferred freedom to sell what they wanted rather than see the state requisition almost everything they produced
205
what were the negative reactions to NEP?
- many Communist Party members didn't like NEP as it was backwards step that seemed to bring capitalism back to USSR
- it also gave peasants what they wanted at expense of workers
206
what happened in 1917 that impacted women specifically?
in 1917:
- women declared equal to men
- 'Post-card divorces' made divorce easier
- non-religious marriage introduced
207
what organisation was set up in 1919?
Zhenotdel was set up to increase freedom, equality and influence of women
208
what occurred in 1920 that impacted women?
in 1920:
- abortion made legal
- women's literacy increased with civil war literacy campaigns
209
what did Bolsheviks want to liberate women from?
oppression by men
210
what was a 'Post-card divorce'?
cost 3 roubles and other partner informed by post
211
who was the leader of Zhenotdel?
Alexandra Kollontai
212
why was Alexandra Kollontai's impact limited?
- she opposed Lenin by demanding more democracy in Communist Party
- she became first woman ambassador, very few other women were promoted to top government positions
213
in spite of improvements or women, under NEP, what declined?
- number of crèches declined
- factory work for women declined
- women still expected to do all domestic work even with job
214
what did Communist education policies include between 1921-1924?
- co-education (girls and boys taught together) introduced to reduce discrimination against women
- major literacy drive in Red Army
- peasants encouraged to learn to read and write
- by 1926, about 58% of population was literate (big increase on pre-revolution)
215
why was it hard for the Communist Party to make as much progress as it wanted with literacy rates?
economic problems limited investment
216
what were Communist cultural policies?
- Communist Party understood power of propaganda in convincing people to support revolution
- Agitprop was Agitation and Propaganda Section of the Central Committee Secretariat of the Communist Party (party's propaganda wing)
- used art, literature, film etc to promote communist ideas /portray USSR's communist future
217
how was art controlled by the Communist Party?
- Communist Party needed artists to help spread propaganda
- artists increasingly censored by state department Glavlit, ensuring books, pictures, films etc showed communism I accessible and positive way called 'socialist realism'
218
219
when did Lenin die?
January 1924
220
what occurred after Lenin died?
there was a struggle for power among senior communists to become leader of Soviet Union
221
what did Lenin do soon before he died?
he had written a 'testament' criticising all the other senior communists
222
who were the main rivals to replace Lenin?
- Stalin
- Trotsky
- Zinoviev and Kamenev
- Bukharin
223
what was Stalin's ideology?
believed in 'Socialism in One Country': that the USSR could become a socialist state on its own
224
what were Stalin's strengths?
- position as General Secretary: power to appoint supporters to key party jobs
- appearance of moderation: no extreme views, respectful to rivals, kept private opinions to himself
225
what were Stalin's weaknesses?
- Lenin's testament criticised his rudeness and lust for power
- seen as boring, unlike many key rivals
