richard and john 1189-1216 Flashcards
1
Q
what is the order of the feudal hierarchy?
A
- king
- tenants-in-chief
- under-tenants
- free men
- peasants
2
Q
what was the king’s position in the feudal hierarchy?
A
- very powerful
- owned all the land in England but granted most of it to tenants-in-chief
- his duty to protect his people from invasion and enforce laws
3
Q
what was the tenants-in chief’s position in the feudal hierarchy?
A
- vassals of the king
- most were nobles or important clergy e.g. bishops
- in return for their fief, they paid homage and provided knight service to the king
- most powerful nobles and clergy were barons
- advised the king and helped govern
- granted some land to under-tenants
4
Q
what was the under-tenants’s position in the feudal hierarchy?
A
- vassals to tenants-in-chief
- most were knights and lesser clergy
- in return for their land, they paid homage to their lord and provided knight service
- granted some of their land to peasants
- most knights were lords of a manor
5
Q
what was the free men’s position in the feudal hierarchy?
A
- could travel and work wherever they wanted
- included merchants, craftsmen and farmers
- in villages, they had to obey and pay rent to their lord
- sometimes worked on lord’s land, but were paid for this
6
Q
what was the peasants’ position in the feudal hierarchy?
A
- unfree peasants provided labour service to their lord in return for his protection, shelter and a small strip of land to provide food for their families
- lords could buy and sell them, and hey couldn’t leave without permission
- a few peasants were free (not bound to the land), but most did not leave the local lord
7
Q
what is a fief or feud?
A
land held by a vassal in return for service to a lord
8
Q
how was landholding divided?
A
- the king kept about 20% of land in England for hunting, farming and renting out
- the king’s land was known as demesne
- most of the rest (approx. 55%) was run by barons, other nobles and knights
- the remaining land was controlled by the church, which made it very wealthy
9
Q
what was paying homage?
A
- all landholders had to pay homage to their lord by swearing an oath of loyalty
- this oath was sworn in a public ceremony
- once it was sworn, the landholder became the vassal of his lord and had to provide service to him
- if a vassal broke his oath, he could be punished by forfeiture or even death
10
Q
what was forfeiture?
A
- if a vassal failed to provide service to his lord, or committed a crime, his oath was considered broken, and his land was forfeit (the lord took it away)
- the land could then be granted to someone else as a reward for their loyalty
- this helped maintain the feudal hierarchy and the king’s power
11
Q
what was knight service?
A
- it ensured the king had an army to protect his kingdom
- the amount of land held by a tenant-in-chief determined how many knights he owed the king
- some barons were allowed to play scuttle to the king instead of providing knights
12
Q
what was labour service?
A
- the work that unfree peasants were expected to on on their lord’s land
- helped ensure enough food and other essential items, like wool for clothing, was produced to provide for everyone in the country
13
Q
what were the duties of knight service?
A
- serving in the king’s army for two months per year
- raising money to pay the ransom of their lord if he was captured during battle
- guarding castles of their lord or the king for up to 40 days per year
14
Q
what were the duties of labour service?
A
- ‘week work’; working on the lord’s land on certain days every week, such as looking after animals, sowing crops, ploughing land
- ‘boon work’; working on the lord’s land gathering in the harvest
15
Q
why was the church so powerful?
A
- owned land and property
- everyone was expected to go to Mass and had to give the church a percentage of their produce
16
Q
what was the structure of the church?
A
- pope = supreme leader
- cardinals
- archbishops
- bishops and abbots
- priests
- deacons
- the laity (people/church members who serve hierarchy)
17
Q
who was the head in the Church in England?
A
the archbishop of Canterbury
18
Q
who supported the Archbishop of Canterbury?
A
the archbishop of York
19
Q
who were bishops in charge of?
A
priests and monks in their diocese (church district); abbots were in charge of monasteries
20
Q
what did every parish have?
A
a priest who was responsible for his church and the people in his parish
21
Q
what was the importance of religion?
A
- most people believed god controlled everything and would decide whether they went to heaven or hell
- this meant pleasing god was vital and church told people how to do this
- church was international organisation whose structure was based on hierarchy
- as god’s representative on earth, the pope had huge authority (even over kings)
- pope authorised appointment or archbishops, who then chose their bishops; the king also had a say over who became an archbishop or bishop; this could cause conflict
- clergy more likely to be loyal to pope than to king if disagreement occurred
22
Q
what was the spiritual influence of the church?
A
- clergy guided and taught people to live according to church teachings; including accepting nature of feudalism and so helping to control society
- clergy performed daily services, including mass, in all villages and towns in England
- also performed baptisms, marriages and funerals
23
Q
what was the political influence of the church?
A
- as tenants-in-chief and under-tenants, members of the clergy provided knight service for the king
- important churchmen, along with barons, were leading members of the government and advised the king
- many clergy were well educated and became clerks in important households like the king’s
- the king (like all catholics) was under authority of pope who could influence king’s policies and actions
24
Q
what was the economic influence of the church?
A
- church very wealthy; earned money from rent and profits from agriculture on its land, people frequently donated money and land to the church/left money in wills, everyone paid a tithe (tenth of produce)to church annually
- as major landholder, church had many vassals and employees; many people depended on church for land, food and employment
- church important source of money for king as pay taxes on money earned from land, king relied on this income, giving church influence over him
25
what was the social influence of the church?
- priests and monks taught people to read and write and some church buildings had large collections of books
- monasteries/nunneries/parish priests looked after elderly/poor/sick
- many churchmen played major roles in law courts and church kept collections of laws
26
how many rights did the king of England have in 1189?
almost unlimited rights to act as he wanted
27
why did the king have so many rights?
he was seen as chosen by god to be king
28
what sort. of rights did the king have?
- make laws
- decide on foreign/domestic policy
- raise an army
- set taxes
- mint coins
29
what did a medieval king need to do in order to maintain authority and keep his subjects under control?
display his power and majesty by showing himself to his people; rituals were an important part of this, plus travelling around the country regularly and meeting barons/nobles/bishops
30
what is the name for the display the king did to maintain power?
itinerant kingship
31
what duties were expected of the king?
- law-maker: to maintain justice and show mercy and fairness
- decision-maker: to govern in the interest of his people
- christian: to support and respect the church
- protector: to defend the land and people from attack
32
how was the king to carry out the duty of being a law-maker?
- the king was expected to consult with leading barons and churchmen in making laws to ensure they were fair
- the king heard court cases himself and sent his own judges to settle other cases
33
how was the king to carry out the duty of being a decision-maker?
- the king was expected to govern fairly and make policy decisions that would benefit his people
- expected to consult with leading barons/churchmen to help do this
34
how was the king to carry out the duty of being a christian?
- people believed king chosen by god so expected him to behave like a good christian and follow advice of leading churchmen
35
how was the king to carry out the duty of being a protector?
- king in charge of army
- expected to have military strategy/skills to lead it effectively
- most kings led army into battle themselves
36
what are two rituals the king participated in?
- coronation
- crown-wearings
37
what happened during the coronation?
- king crowned in coronation ceremony at Westminster abbey in front of important nobles/churchmen
- he was anointed with 'holy oi' to show he was made king by god
- had to take coronation oath; swore to protect church and act with justice and mercy
-tenants-in-chief swore homage to king
38
what happened during crown-wearings?
- three times a year during religious festivals at Winchester (easter), Gloucester (Christmas) and Westminster (Whitsun), the king took part in crown-wearing ceremonies which nobles were expected to attend
- took place in important cathedrals to enforce message that king was chosen by god
39
when was Richard I crowned king of the angevin empire?
3rd September 1189
40
how soon after his coronation did Richard leave England?
3 months later
41
when was Richard born?
1157
42
what was Richard's nickname?
coeur de lion (lionheart)
43
what was Richard's claim to the throne in 1189?
- eldest surviving son of Henry II and Eleanor of aquitaine
- experienced ruler
- Duke of aquitaine since 1172
- successful and proven military leader
- favourite son of eleanor (who was very powerful/influential)
44
what characteristics/qualities did Richard have?
- charismatic
- brave
- strong belief in chivalry
- great soldier
- wrote music and poetry
- arrogant
- selfish
- could be disloyal (had fought against father and brothers during father's reign)
45
how did Richard secure power in 1189?
- made peace with those who had fought against him while his father was alive
- appeased those with strong claims to throne; made brother John the count of mortain (in normandy) and half-brother Geoffrey the archbishop of York (also banned them from England for 3 years)
- agreed that William the lion (king of Scotland) did not have to do homage to him; accepted Scotland as separate country, in return for William dropping claims to northern England
- put able, loyal men like William longchamp in charge in his absence
- won support of barons by restoring land to nobles who had been disinherited by Henry II, using patronage to reward powerful barons
- treated nobles and knights with courtesy and respect and inspired loyalty with charisma
46
when did Richard I die?
6 April 1199 after being wounded whilst fighting in France in march 1199
47
why had Richard named John his heir?
Richard had no children
48
who claimed they should be king instead of John when Richard died?
richard's nephew Arthur, who was the son of john's older brother Geoffrey
49
following primogeniture, who was Richard's rightful heir?
Arthur because he was a son of an older brother
50
when was John born?
1167
51
what were john's nicknames?
earlier: lackland
later: softsword
52
what was john's claim to the throne in 1199?
- fourth and only surviving son of Henry II and Eleanor of aquitaine
- favourite son of Henry II
- acknowledged by Richard I as his heir
- claim supported by his mother
53
what characteristics/qualities did John have?
- intelligent
- hardworking
- experienced in warfare (lacked generalship of Richard)
- had spent some time in England
- 'trained' by his father to be king (lacked Richard's diplomatic skills)
- short tempered
- could be cruel
- suspicious and distrusting of others
- could be disloyal
54
how did John secure power?
- acting quickly by being crowned king on 27 may (Richard died 6 April)
- showed religious devotion by visiting Canterbury and bury st Edmunds after his coronation, inspiring loyalty from English subjects
- left England to be run by men who had governed under Richard, while going to fight for lands in France
- ensured north of England protected from threat of Scottish invasion by entrusting protection to powerful and loyal baron
- secured support of count of angouleme by marrying his daughter Isabelle and persuaded count of Anjou to switch to his side
- drove back Philip II (of France)'s forces and made peace in may 1200 at le goulet
55
what did the treaty of le goulet mean?
- Philip recognised John as king of the Angevin empire
- John gave Philip some land in Normandy
- Arthur remained Duke of Brittany but did homage to John for this
- John agreed to do homage to Philip for his land in France and pay an enormous fine for the inheritance of his land
56
what happened to prince Arthur?
- john's army captured Arthur at Mirebeau in august 1202
- like other captured nobles, Arthur imprisoned in chains (went against chivalry code)
- different versions of what happened next but Arthur disappeared
- John blamed for his murder; some even believed John killed his nephew himself
- consequently, john's supporters in France changed sides and supported Philip; eventually leading to John losing Normandy completely
57
how many years was Richard's reign?
10
- 1189-1199
58
how much time of his reign did Richard actually spend in England during his reign?
6 months
59
who was England ruled by in Richard's absence?
justiciars (who heard law cases and had the authority of the king when he was not there)
60
in what year did Richard appoint William longchamp as justiciar?
1190
61
what did John do in 1191?
arrived in England, stirred up some rebellion, seized some castles
62
when was William longchamp deposed and replaced by Walter of coutances?
October 1191
63
in what year was Richard captured?
1192
64
what happened in 1193?
- John paid homage to Philip II
- John seized more castles in England
- John declared Richard dead
- John declared himself king
- hubert Walter became justiciar
65
when did Richard return to England, take control and then leave again for France?
1194
66
who became justiciar in 1198?
Geoffrey fitz peter
67
when and where was Richard killed?
1199 in france
68
why was William longchamp unpopular with many English barons?
- he was Norman and they felt they knew English government better than him
- he had paid Richard to make him chancellor
- he replaced many sheriffs appointed by Richard with his own men
- they felt he was arrogant and didn't treat them with respect/consult them on important matters
69
in more detail, what happened during john's rebellions (1191/1193)?
1191:
- John arrived in England and encouraged barons to rebel against long champ's rule
- set up his own court, hired sheriffs to collect taxes for him and seized control of several castles
1193:
- after hearing of Richard's capture, John tried to seize the throne
- paid homage to Philip II for Richard's lands in France
- returned to England, seized more castles, declared Richard was dead and he was king
70
why did john's rebellion fail in 1193?
- he had no support
- coutances met with leading barons and decided to believe Richard was alive and pay ransom
71
what did John do after Richard's release in 1194?
surrendered the castles and begged for mercy
72
what was Richard's response to John begging for mercy after he rebelled in 1193?
Richard forgave his brother and named him his heir before he died
73
what position was Hubert Walter in before becoming justiciar?
Archbishop of Canterbury
74
who appointed Hubert Walter justiciar in December 1193?
the barons
75
what forced Hubert Walter to resign as justiciar in 1198?
illness
76
who took over from Hubert Walter as justiciar when he resigned in 1198?
Geoffrey fitz peter
77
why was England well governed until 1199?
- Richard often close by in normandy and stayed in touch with Walter (authorising/approving his actions)
- Walter and Richard had support of barons and consulted with them
- Walter made justice system more effective by choosing four knights in each hundred (area within a shire) to deal with justice in an area
78
during the year 1199-1204, where did John spend most of his time?
france
79
what was John doing in France between 1199-1204?
trying to secure the angevin empire
80
in john's absence, who was England ruled by?
justiciars
81
where did John spend the years 1204-1216 ruling?
England
82
what showed that John kept most of Richard's main officials in place to rule in his absence?
fitz Peter continued as justiciar and Hubert Walter was appointed chancellor
83
when did John lose normandy?
1204
84
what did John do when he lost Normandy?
returned to England
85
what was/is john's rule seen as?
oppressive
86
what were some positive views of John?
- John was more interested in governing England than many of his predecessors had been
- described as hard-working and energetic
- paid great attention to detail and kept efficient records of day-to-day government that show how much work he did
- government records show that John could be generous and often gave donations to the poor
87
what were some reasons for john's unpopularity?
1. John did most of the governing himself and was almost continuously in the country after 1204, so was blamed when things went wrong; in the past, regents or government ministers had taken the blame for unpopular policies
2. ultimately replaced advisers with 'new men', many were inexperienced in government/exploited their influence to gain financial rewards; John relied on few people, so had few supporters
3. 'new men' took place of English barons in advising king, which annoyed/angered barons; unlike Richard, John did little to gain support of barons, he seems to have distrusted them
4. ways John raised money (taxes and fines) for unsuccessful wars caused hardship/annoyance; many barons owed large debts due to john's demands
5. john's dispute with pope worried/angered some subjects, especially churchmen
6. John took almost total control over justice; many saw him as using law to benefit himself (only he heard cases in the royal court)
7. suspected murder of Arthur/cruel punishment for those who displeased John/reports that John attempted to seduce barons' wives; made him hated and feared
88
who do many descriptions of John come from?
13th century chroniclers
89
who were the 13th century chroniclers who described John?
monks
90
why are most description of John so negative?
the monks had negative opinions of him as he argued with pope
91
why did Richard need to raise money?
to fund his crusade and pay ransom
92
what did both Richard and John need to pay for?
wars in France
93
how did Richard and John raise money?
- royal demesne
- feudal incidents
- court cases
- selling offices
- scutage
- aids
94
how did royal demesne raise money?
- land held directly by king raised money through sale of crops and livestock
- brought rent from towns/countryside/tallage (land tax)
- tallages paid only by peasants; greatly resented
- John increased amount paid by towns/cities
95
how did feudal incidents raise money?
- these were charges king made vassals pay for ransoming the king if he was captured, to knight king's eldest son/pay eldest daughter's dowry
- also forest fines, wardship and inheritance fines
- John increased forest/wardship fines (fell heavily on barons)
96
how did court cases raise money?
- fees for a writ starting a court case were paid to king
- possessions of any person convicted of crime went to king
- in john's reign, crown raised funds in return for favourable judgement in court; leading to complaints that John sold justice
97
how did selling offices raise money?
- usual for positions, e.g. sheriff, to be bought
- in 1194, Richard made many men pay to retain positions they bought in 1189 for war in France
98
how did scutage raise money?
- paid by tenants-in-chief instead of providing knight service to king when demanded
- king set amount to be paid according to amount of land held/number of knights due in knight service
- money used to hire professional soldiers in war
99
how many scutages did Richard levy in his reign?
3
100
how many scutages did John levy in his reign?
11
(John also raised amount due per knight)
101
how did aids raise money?
- taxes payable in exceptional circumstances
- levied on income to pay Richard's ransom
- demanded by John in 1207 in form of new tax on moveables/income to recover land in France
102
what was john's tax on moveables and income in 1207?
tax on goods/possessions of every man at a rate of a thirteenth of the value
103
what was the penalty for failure to pay john's new tax in 1207?
seizure of moveables and imprisonment
104
what was the role of sheriffs?
- had to collect taxes due from royal demesne
- allowed to keep any money collected above required sum, so office of sheriff could be valuable (some exploited)
- John increased fixed sums demanded from each demesne so sheriffs increased pressure on people taxed
105
what type of society was medieval England?
agrarian rural
106
where did most people live in medieval England?
in a manorial village
107
what was land for farming divided into?
- strips
- each field grew single crop e.g. wheat, barley, rye, oats
108
who farmed in medieval England?
peasant men, women and children were all expected to work on the land
109
what were animals kept for in medieval England?
food and to provide material for clothing
110
where did animals graze?
common land around village
(put in barns/peasant's houses at night for safety)
111
what day was the day off for peasants?
sunday
- they were expected to go to church
112
who lived in the Manor House?
lord of the manor or his bailiff (manager)
113
who were lords?
baron, lesser noble or knights
114
who were unfree peasants owned by?
the lord
115
what did freemen do?
paid rent for their land and sometimes worked on the lord's land (were paid for this)
116
by 1189, why were towns growing?
increasing trade and prosperity
117
why were towns vital to the economy?
they were centres of trade and an essential source of revenue for the king
118
what are some examples of employment in medieval towns?
- tradesmen such as blacksmiths, carpenters, bakers
- merchants
- servants or labourers
119
what did town dwellers usually have to pay to the king?
tallage (land tax)
120
what are some features of the physical layout of medieval towns?
- town gateway
- stone walls for protection
- farming plots
- church
- town shop with living area upstairs
- narrow streets
121
what did tradesmen do?
- trained as apprentices to highly skilled master craftsmen
- often members of a guild
122
what did guilds have the right to?
guilds had the right to trade in a town in return for members' fees and payment of taxes
123
what did merchants do?
- sold food, raw materials and textiles in towns across England and Europe
- some were very wealthy
- customs duties on all imports and exports were paid to the king
124
by 1200, how many jews lived in England?
around 5000
125
what was the legal status of jews in medieval England?
- they were allowed to travel where they wanted, and were exempt from many travel tolls
- they were allowed to trade and to inherit possessions
- they and their possessions were essentially property of the king; he could tax them whenever/however much he wanted
- local restrictions often barred them from some jobs e.g. not allowed to join guilds so couldn't find employment as skilled tradesmen
126
why were most jews moneylenders in medieval England?
- the church didn't allow Christians to charge interest for lending money
- there were few other jobs as jews barred from many occupations
127
why were jewish moneylenders essential for England's economy?
they provided loans for many barons and knights to buy land or positions
128
which non-christian groups were allowed to live in England?
jews were the only non-christian group allowed to live in England; they did so under the king's protection
129
how was anti-semitism growing in the late 12th century?
- accusations of being 'Christ-killers' and false rumours about jews killing christian children in rituals
- the crusades highlighted religious differences and caused tensions
- many people owed jewish people money so were jealous of success in business
130
how did Richard and John exploit jews?
- taxation; jews forced to pay tallies at any time
- after 1194, king could collect all debts owed to a jew if he died without a will
131
what is a pogrom?
a riot against a particular group of people
132
when were the pogroms?
1189-90
133
what did the pogroms of 1189-90 involve?
- setting jews' homes on fire
- stealing the property of jews
- physically attacking and killing jews
134
what were the pogroms sparked by?
christians who thought that the jews offering a gift to Richard at his coronation in September 1189 was an insult to the new king
135
what was Richard's response to the pogroms?
he was furious; he hanged the ringleaders and sent messages across England to order people to leave jews in peace
136
what did the violence towards jews culminate in?
the massacre of jews at York castle
137
where were there anti-jewish riots in September 1189?
London
138
where were there anti-jewish riots in February 1190?
king's Lynn and Norwich
139
where were there anti-jewish riots in march 1190?
stamford, bury st. Edmunds, Lincoln and york
140
what did 150 jews do in York castle and what happened?
150 jews took refuge from the riots at Clifford's tower in York castle, but the castle was attacked
141
what was a crusade?
a holy war
142
why was Richard away from England from 1189-1194?
he was on the third crusade
143
on the third crusade, what was the cause of the conflict?
christians and muslims were fighting over control of the holy land
144
what is the holy land?
the area o the Middle East linked to Jesus Christ and includes parts of modern Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and the Palestinian Territories
145
where did the concept of crusade come from?
- by 1095, the muslim Seljuk turks had taken over the holy land (had been part of Christian byzantine empire)
- pope claimed muslims were persecuting christians who lived there and preventing them from visiting Jerusalem
- pope appealed to christians in Europe to go on crusade; travel to holy land and win back control from the Seljuk turks
146
what occurred during the first crusade?
- thousands of European knights travelled to the holy land and captured land which became known as 'crusader states', including city of Jerusalem (many muslims and jews killed)
147
what did popes promise christians who went on crusade?
a full indulgence
148
who did the church often sell indulgences to?
people who were anxious to reduce penance for their sins and their time in purgatory
149
what did a full indulgence mean?
complete forgiveness for sins committed on earth, and immediate admission to heaven after death
150
what were the causes of the third crusade?
1. in 1144, muslim forces took back control of parts of edessa; this led to the second crusade as christian armies attempted to win back edessa
2. after 1150, Muslim groups began to unite; by 1184 the crusade states were totally surrounded by muslim lands, and were weakened by quarrels between the christian lords ruling them
3. in July 1187, Saladin led Muslim forces in. great victory over the Christian army at the battle of hattin
4. Saladin's forces attacked Jerusalem; by October 1187, Jerusalem was back under Muslim control
5. people in Europe shocked and horrified to hear Jerusalem had been taken; on 29th October 1187 pope Gregory VIII issued papal bull describing horrible attacks on christians by Muslims and calling for third crusade to take back Jerusalem- he offered full indulgence to those who went on crusade
151
who went on crusade?
- knights
- many knights' squires/other members of knights' military households
- 8000 professional soldiers hired by Richard
- a few important churchmen
- many priests to provide religious guidance/some fought
- civilians, including women, working as cooks/baggage carriers/nurses; some married to other crusaders
152
what did people who vowed to go on crusade do?
promised to 'take the cross'
153
what were attitudes in England to the crusaders?
- most people supported their king's call for a crusade
- seen as highest duty a king could perform
- respect for Richard for actually going/sticking to promise
- many horrified by news Jerusalem under Muslim control/felt it was Christian duty to recapture
- some resented cost of third crusade/worried how lands would be managed while knights away
- a few had concerns over king being absent from country he ruled
154
why did people go on crusade?
- financial reasons
- religious reasons
- other reasons
155
what were the financial reasons for why people went on crusade?
- crusaders didn't have to pay crusading tax (Saladin tithe)
- there would be opportunities to gain wealth/land in holy land
- professional soldiers paid for going on crusade
- crusaders' debts would be cancelled while they were away
156
what were the religious reasons for why people went on crusade?
- pope promised all crusaders full indulgence
- many priests persuaded people to go on crusade, often using tales of muslim atrocities
- going on pilgrimage was common and Jerusalem most sacred of all sites
- many saw it as religious duty to win back christian control of holy land, especially Jerusalem
157
what were the other reasons for why people went on crusade?
- to travel and go on an adventure
- to win glory and respect for themselves and their family
- to complete their knight service and fulfil their duty to their lord
- to take revenge on the muslims who had taken Jerusalem and killed christians
158
when did Richard take the cross?
autumn of 1187
159
when did Richard leave for the holy land?
December 1189
160
what were Richard's motives for involvement in the third crusade?
- he was religious an strongly believed it was christian duty
- great soldier with military experience, and believed this was his chance for honour and glory
- due to wealth and size of his empire, he had necessary resources
- great grandfather had been king of Jerusalem so family connection/desire to win it back
161
what did Richard's rivalry with Philip consist of?
- Philip had tried to take angevin lands and stir up trouble between Richard/hid brothers/father
- Philip's empire/resources smaller
- Philip had given Richard the vexin as dowry for marrying his sister but Richard never married her
162
who was the third leader of the third crusade?
Frederick I of the Holy Roman Empire
163
what happened to Frederick I?
he drowned on the way to the holy land in June 1190
164
what did the death of Frederick I cause to happen to the rivalry between Richard and Philip?
it increased the rivalry as they both wanted to lead the crusade
165
what was the difference between Richard and Philip's arrivals in Messina, Sicily in September 1190?
Richard was greeted with a great ceremony but Philip got a quiet reception (felt humiliated)
166
after fighting erupted, who conquered Messina and made the peace deal with Sicily's ruler?
Richard (gave Philip some of money made from peace deal)
167
when did Richard invade and conquer Cyprus?
may 1191
168
what increased tensions between Philip and Richard around the conquering of Cyprus?
- after Richard's victory, he refused to share it's value with Philip
- Richard sold island for 100,000 gold coins and secured grain supplied for his army
- in cyprus, Richard married Berengaria of Navarre (going back on agreement to marry Philip's sister)
169
what sort of quarrels over strategy did Philip and Richard have in the holy land?
- disagreed over who should be king of Jerusalem
- how much their professional soldiers should be paid (Richard paid more)
170
when did Philip/Richard win at acre?
July 1191
171
when did Philip return home?
august 1191
172
besides his annoyance with Richard, why else did Philip return home in august 1191?
he was unwell and feared France would be attacked in his absence as he was told the count of Flanders died
173
which victories enhanced Richard's reputation?
acre and arsuf
174
what was the importance of acre?
- main port in kingdom of Jerusalem
- important supply route to town of Jerusalem
- been under siege by crusaders since 1189
175
when did Philip's forces join the siege at acre?
January 1191
176
when/how did Richard join the siege at acre?
- as Richard sailed towards acre in June, his forces managed to sink enemy ships
- arrived at acre on 8 June
177
how were the walls at acre eventually breached?
by catapults and Philip's miners who had tunnelled under them
178
when did Saladin's forces surrender acre?
on 12 July 1191 (around a month after Richard's arrival)
179
what did Richard do after Philip returned to France?
Richard negotiated with Saladin
180
what were the agreements made when Richard negotiated with Saladin?
- Richard agreed to release muslim soldiers if Saladin paid 200000 gold coins, released christian prisoners and hand over siege weapons and the true cross
181
what did Saladin do that Richard thought was a play for time?
he didn't do anything they agreed to in the negotiations
182
what was Richard's response to Saladin not honouring their agreements?
his men took 2700 muslim prisoners to a spot within sight of Saladin's camp and executed them
183
what did the crusader army do when they left acre?
began to march to Jaffa on the way to Jerusalem
184
why did the march to Jaffa show Richard's tactical expertise?
- his forces marched close to the sea, so that one flank was protected by the fleet and the other by archers and infantry
185
why was access to the fleet important as Richard's forces marched?
the crusaders' fleet supplied the troops with water, food and a place to rest
186
what did Saladin realise as the Richard's forces marched?
his forces would have to face them in battle to stop them reaching Jaffa
187
when/where did Saladin attack Richard?
on 7 September 1191, Saladin's 30,000-strong army attacked the crusaders on the plain of arsuf
188
who won the battle at arsuf and what was the result?
Richard won, saladin's army fled and the crusader army marched on to Jaffa
189
how many times did the crusaders march to Jerusalem?
twice
190
what happened during the first march to Jerusalem?
- progress was slow due to terrible weather
- mud and rain destroyed food, clothes and weapons
- progress impossible so Richard led crusaders to ascalon
191
what happened during the second march to Jerusalem?
- by June the weather had improved and crusaders marched to Beit Nuba in days
- it was hot and crusaders worried about lack of water, especially as Saladin poisoned wells around Jerusalem
- Richard decided to retreat again
192
what were the reasons for not attacking Jerusalem?
- leaving coast left supply lines vulnerable to attack; they could be cut off from food and water supplies
- leaving coast also meant they could be surrounded by muslim forces and attacked from all sides without being able to retreat
- lack of troops to successfully besiege Jerusalem, which had strong defences e.g. fortresses/wall
- lack of resources to hold city if they did win it
193
what happened at Jaffa when most crusaders had retreated to ascalon for the second time?
- Saladin's troops tried to retake Jaffa
- leaders at Jaffa about to surrender but Richard led a surprise attack to save the town
- Saladin's army regrouped and attacked again but Richard defended
- leaders of both sides decided to stop fighting
194
what were the reasons for the treaty of Jaffa?
- Richard had heard that his land was at risk from Philip II and John
- Saladin was ill and was running out of money to pay for war
195
what did the treaty of Jaffa include?
- muslims retained Jerusalem
- christians retained coastline between acre and Jaffa
- christian pilgrims could visit sacred sites in Jerusalem in safety
- there would be no fighting for three years
196
when was Richard captured?
while trying to return from the crusade
197
when did Richard set sail for home from the crusade?
9 October 1192
198
why could Richard not travel all the way home from the crusade by sea?
the Atlantic Ocean was too rough for ships during winter
199
besides Philip II of France, what other enemies did Richard have in Europe?
- Leopold, Duke of Austria
- Leopold's overlord, Henry VI (holy roman emperor)
- a cousin of Conrad of montferrat in northern Italy
200
why did Leopold, Duke of Austria, not like Richard?
because Richard had insulted leopold at acre during the crusade
201
why did Leopold's overlord, Henry VI (holy roman emperor) not like Richard?
Henry resented that Richard had supported henry's rival to the throne after Frederick I drowned in 1190
202
why did a cousin of Conrad of montferrat in northern Italy not like Richard?
Richard had stopped him becoming king of Jerusalem and there were rumours that Richard was behind Conrad's murder in 1192
203
how was Richard captured?
- in November, Richard shipwrecked off northern Adriatic coast
- had to cross enemy territory to get home
- he/companions disguised themselves
- around Christmas was recognised and arrested in Vienna by duke leopold's men
204
who did leopold hand Richard to in the following February?
Henry VI
205
what was the pope's response to Richard's capture?
he excommunicated leopold and Henry
206
why did the pope excommunicate leopold and Henry over Richard's capture?
crusaders were supposed to be able to travel freely across Europe
207
who did Henry write to about Richard's capture to decide a ransom figure?
Philip II
208
why was the ransom figure for Richard so huge?
- Richard was very important
- Henry and leopold wanted as much money as they could get
- Philip knew it would take time to raise lots of money and this could help him capture some of Richard's land in France
209
how much money was demanded as Richard's ransom?
100,000 marks/£60,000
210
what were opinions about paying Richard's ransom in England?
- John didn't want to pay ransom
- leading English nobles wanted Richard back, so did Eleanor of aquitaine
211
who took charge of raising the money for the ransom?
Eleanor of aquitaine
212
how long did it take to raise the ransom money?
6 months
213
when was Richard released?
4 February 1194 (after over a year in captivity)
214
how was the ransom money raised?
- 25% aid charged (tax on income/moveables)
- land tax on all tenants-in-chief and under-tenants
- tallage of £3375 on jews
- gold and silver plate from churches in England
- £1350 from king of Scotland
- a year's wool from cistercian monks
215
why was normandy important for Richard/John?
- closest angevin land in france to England, providing gateway to other regions
- losing it to Philip would increase risk of invasion in England
- many English barons held land in normandy so losing it would reduce confidence in king
216
why was normandy important for Philip?
- normandy, especially vexin, close to Paris
- threat to French king's lands
- options for winning more land from control of normandy
217
why was normandy important for everyone?
- normandy very wealthy e.g. fertile farmland
- Norman towns wealthy/traded a lot with England; Richard wanted to gain trade and Richard/John didn't want to lose it
218
what did Richard do after returning from his imprisonment?
he secured England before setting sail for Normandy
219
what were Richard's aims in Normandy?
- defend his territory in France
- regain land already lost to Philip
220
why was Richard's rule in normandy hanging on by a thread?
- some important Norman barons had switched sides to support Philip
- Philip (with john's help) had taken control of most of western normandy including the vexin region
- Philip now controlled strategically important castles e.g. gisors
- Philip controlled two harbours so could attack by sea and land
- Philips army not far from normandy's capital Rouen
221
what did John do upon Richard's return to England?
threw himself upon Richard's mercy
222
why was choosing to forgive John, tactically, a good choice?
- he only had one enemy to fight
- he gained john's support/army
223
in January 1199 what did Philip agree?
everything he had captured would go back to Richard except gisors
224
what factors caused Richard to be able to successfully achieve his aims in normandy?
- military skill
- bribery
- forging alliances
225
how did military skill help Richard to achieve his aims in normandy?
Richard and john's armies successfully laid siege to many castles, defended their castles and won several battles
226
how did bribery help Richard to achieve his aims in normandy?
Richard successfully bribed many noble to switch sides and support him instead of Philip so took back control of territory and bringing more knights under control
227
how did forging alliances help Richard to achieve his aims in normandy?
Richard made important alliances with leaders e.g. counts of Toulouse, Flanders and Boulogne so Philip surrounded by enemies
228
what was chateau gaillard's location like?
- built on river seine
- on border of normandy and overlooking vexin
- defended main route from Paris to Rouen
- close to rouen; men/supplies could reach by road
- ships could reach from England
- good base to attack castles in vexin
229
what was chateau gaillard's structure like?
- pinnacle of medieval engineering
- central great tower surrounded by several walls with towers for defence
- many curved walls so no weak corners
230
what was chateau gaillard's cost and time like?
- cost £12,000
- nearly twice what Richard spent on castles in England
- took two years to build but some historians think never completed
231
what was chateau gaillard's site like?
- on narrow plateau around 600 feet long and 200 feet wide
- surrounded by deep ravines leading to river
- steep slopes around castle made attack difficult and hard to mine under walls
232
why was chateau gaillard important?
- defended rouen so also normandy as whole from French attack
- good base to attack Philip II's land; Richard almost totally retaken vexin by 1199
- magnificent palace to demonstrate wealth and power
- huge cost put strain on finances of England
233
when did Richard die?
April 1199
234
who succeeded Richard?
John
235
why did war restart?
- Isabelle of angouleme had been promised to Hugh de lusignan
- John married her to secure some of his lands in France and didn't offer the lusignans compensation
- Hugh appealed to Philip for help as Philip was John's overlord who he paid homage to
- John refused to attend Philip's court after summons
- Philip then able to forfeit john's land in France and launch attack
- Philip claimed normandy and declared Arthur lord of rest of john's land in France
- John left England with army to defend French lands
236
what did John refuse to do in easter 1202?
- attend Philip's court to answer charges of injustice against Hugh de lusignan
- Philip declares john's continental lands forfeit
237
what happened in august 1202 when Arthur's forces besieged mirebeau?
- Eleanor of aquitaine was trapped inside
- John and army relieved siege and rescued her
- also captured Arthur
238
when did Arthur disappear?
easter 1203
239
why was Arthur's disappearance damaging for John?
many believed John murdered his nephew, so switched to Philip's side
240
what did Philip do in summer 1203?
- took Anjou and maine
- entered normandy from south
- captured important castles
241
when did Philip besiege chateau gaillard?
September 1203
242
when did John return to England?
December 1203
243
when did Philip take chateau gaillard?
6th march 1204
244
what happened on the 24th June 1204?
- rouen surrendered to Philip
- normandy entirely under Philip's control
245
what happened over the fall of chateau gaillard?
- John initially sent forces to attack French when they reached chateau gaillard in September 1203 (failed)
- instead of sending more troops, John returned to england to persuade more barons/knights to help
- castle fell to Philip's siege after 6 months
246
why did John lose normandy?
- John lost key allies
- English barons
- lack of money
- Philip's skill and ambition
- john's millitary mistakes
- john's diplomatic mistakes
247
how did John losing key allies contribute to him losing normandy?
- john's treatment of Arthur/other noble prisoners made many nobles in England and france switch sides
248
how did English barons contribute to John losing normandy?
- after years of war, they were reluctant to fight/finance another
249
how did John's lack of money contribute to him losing normandy?
- John couldn't afford to hire more professional soldiers/bribe nobles in France to stay allies
250
how did philip's skill and ambition contribute to John losing normandy?
- Philip II was good military leader/skilled diplomat
251
how did John's military mistakes contribute to him losing normandy?
- John been criticised for leaving normandy when he did; looked as though he abandoned soldiers
- failed to send more troops/resources to relieve chateau gaillard
252
how did John's diplomatic mistakes contribute to him losing normandy?
- paying homage to Philip in 1200 meant Philip could declare john's lands forfeit
- if John had compensated Hugh de lusignan, he probably wouldn't have gone to Philip
253
when did Hubert Walter (Archbishop of Canterbury) die?
July 1205
254
why did the dispute between Innocent III and John begin?
they disagreed over who should be the new archbishop
255
how did the dispute between John and innocent progress?
- John decided John de gray (archbishop of Norwich) should be Archbishop of Canterbury
- monks of Canterbury wanted monk called Reginald
- pope innocent wanted Stephen Langton
- John refused to accept Langton
- pope made Langton archbishop
- John wouldn't allow Langton into England, expelled monks from Canterbury and seized land owned by Italian clergy in England
- pope placed England under interdict
256
why did John and innocent disagree over Stephen Langton?
John:
- wanted to choose his own Archbishop of Canterbury
- didn't know/trust Stephen Langton
- langton had been working in Paris with Philip II
Pope:
- god's representative on earth
- studied and spent time with Stephen Langton
- believed Langton good choice for archbishop
257
when did the pope place England under an interdict?
march 1208 to July 1213
258
what were the consequences of the interdict?
people in England couldn't receive most christian sacraments, so:
- dying couldn't receive mass
- sick couldn't be anointed
- marriages couldn't take place in church
- Christian burial forbidden
- baptisms only allowed behind locked doors in church
- religious services couldn't take place in church
259
how did the pope slightly relent from 1209 regarding the interdict?
- allowed clergy/monks/nuns to receive mass behind church doors
- dying allowed to receive mass
260
what was the impact of the interdict on everyday life?
people less affected than pope thought
- priests held services outside church
- in some areas clergy ignored interdict
- most religious life e.g. praying/fasting/festivals/pilgrimage continued as normal
- lack of christian burials worrying as fear souls wouldn't go to heaven
261
what was john's response to the interdict?
- confiscated property of any clergy who opposed him, kept profit
- to get property back clergy had to pay lots of money
- some monks and mistresses arrested and released after fines
- John profited a lot from interdict
262
when was John excommunicated?
8th November 1209
263
what did john's excommunication mean?
- John excluded from all sacraments/church services
- would go to hell when dead
- subjects no longer had to obey him; had to choose between church and king
- many resented John for putting them in position to choose
- John responded to excommunication by seizing more church property/possessions
264
when did John agree to the pope's peace terms and to become his vassal?
may 1213
265
why did John decide to agree with the pope?
- in 1212, John defeated plot against him by barons, by 1213 lacked allies so reconciliation gave ally of papacy
- by 1213, England on brink of invasion by Philip II's forces, led by eldest son, Louis; Philip could claim crusade with pope's blessing unless pope/John reconciled, John backed down avoided pope/Philip alliance
266
when did negotiations between John and pope innocent III begin?
early 1213
267
what terms did innocent want John to agree to?
1. Stephen Langton be allowed to become Archbishop of Canterbury
2. clergy exiled from England be allowed to return and property given back to them
3. compensation be paid to the pope
268
which terms did John also put forward?
4. king of England and lord of Ireland to hold kingdoms from overlord the pope (England become fief of Rome)
5. king of England pay pope 1,000 marks per year
269
what was the significance of the reconciliation between John and the pope?
- prevented Philip II's forces invading in 1213; attacking john's kingdom now attack on pope
- gave John/england important ally against future attack/invasion
- gave John extremely powerful ally against other problems (pope supported John against Magna Carta)
270
how did John try to raise large sums of money?
- scutage; raised 11 times, in 1214 was largest ever
- wardship fines; increased by 300%
- inheritance fines for feudal lands; rose by 4x
- marriage fines; more frequent on barons who married without permission from king
- widows could be fined; if they didn't agree to marry who John told to or if wanted to inherit husband's lands but not marry
- 1207 thirteenth tax; on goods and income, fell heavily on barons
271
what was the punishment like for non-payment of fines?
- John/his favourites pressured barons to pay debts within fixed period
- if they didn't, king seized lands/possessions and even could take relatives hostage
272
what were some financial problems that John faced?
- financing Richard's crusade and ransom and Richard/john's wars in france left many short of money
- losing normandy in 1204 meant loss of income from land/tenants
- inflation meant money decreased in value
273
how did John use his arbitrary power?
- took almost total control of justice
- many barons resented selfish manipulation of law
- between 1209 and 1214, only judges approved by John allowed to oversee cases
- John accused of selling justice
- treatment of William de braose shows financial pressure placed on barons and john's use of arbitrary power to deal with people however he wanted
274
who was William de braose?
- one of john's leading barons; land in England, Wales and Ireland
- agreed to pay John for land, by 1207 had not paid much
- in 1208, John took land in England and Wales, William fled to Ireland
- in 1210, when John went to Ireland, William fled to france but his wife and eldest son were captured
- John put them in prison; many historians believe they starved to death
275
when did John hear of a plot to kill him?
in the summer of 1212 when preparing to win back areas controlled by llywelyn
276
who was leading the plot of 1212?
Eustace de Vesci and Robert Fitz Walter in league with llywelyn
277
what did John do in response to the plot of 1212?
- acted swiftly
- marched army north to reassert control and prevent rebellion
278
what did the leaders of the rebellion do when John reasserted control?
de Vesci fled to scotland and Fitz Walter to France
279
what were the consequences of the plot of 1212?
- John made some concessions including relaxing some tax demands
- John reconciled with the pope
280
who was Eustace de Vesci?
- held lots of land in northern England
- borrowed money from jewish moneylenders to pay taxes/fines
- accused John of trying to seduce his wife
281
who was Robert Fitz Walter?
- held land throughout England
- owed John lots of money
- annoyed with John for not supporting claim to Hereford castle
- accused John of trying to seduce his daughter
282
who was Llywelyn?
- in 1211 he led a rebellion in Wales and seized some land
- John attacked and forced him into peace settlement including surrendering son as hostage
- llywelyn continued to defy John and plotted with Philip II
283
what happened surrounding the failure in france?
- John left for france February 1214
- he was well-prepared with big experienced army
- had powerful allies
- planned to attack from north and south
- john's campaign in south failed
- john's allies in north also failed
284
what was the impact of the failure to regain normandy in 1214?
- John returned to England defeated and discredited
- john's war chest of £130,000 wasted
- barons who financed campaigns were angry
- more financial problems; loss of revenue from normandy
- john's reputation as 'softsword' cemented
- Philip II's victory at bouvines meant also defeated holy roman emperor so france most powerful nation in Europe
285
what did the rebellion of 1215 end with?
the Magna Carta
286
what happened in November 1214?
- some angry barons met at Bury St Edmunds
- they swore if John refused to accept terms of Henry I's coronation charter, they'd begin rebellion
287
what did Henry I's charter promise?
the king would restore good government and get rid of 'evil customs'
288
when did John agree to meet with rebel barons in London?
January 1215
- he refused their demands but agreed to meet again in April
289
how did John gain the pope's support in march 1215?
he 'took the cross'
290
what did rebel barons do in April 1215?
- mustered an army in northampton and sent another set of demands which John refused
- meanwhile, John received letters of support from pope
291
when did rebel barons break their oath of fealty to John and what happened?
5th may 1215
- they marched on northampton led by Fitz Walter
- they failed to take the town but started marching to London and took control of Norfolk/Suffolk/Lincoln
292
what did John do on 12th may 1215?
he seized lands of the 39 rebel barons
293
when did rebel barons gain control of London and it's financial resources?
17th may 1215
294
when did negotiations between John and the barons begin?
27th may 1215
295
what happened on the 15th June 1215?
John sealed the Magna Carta
296
who were the rebel barons?
- by June 1215, around 39 barons out of 165 rebelled
- most from the north
297
what did the barons who weren't rebelling do?
a similar number of barons supported John but most refused to take sides and waited to see the outcome
298
where was the Magna Carta signed?
runnymede, surrey
299
what were the motives of the barons?
1. money
2. power
3. behaviour
4. justice
300
why was money a motive of the barons?
301
why was power a motive of the barons?
- few barons played traditional role of advising king etc
- John relied on small number of 'new men' for advice and rewarded them rather than barons
302
why was behaviour a motive of the barons?
- John accused of trying to seduce wives/daughters
- John made barons' widows marry who he wanted and had to pay fines if refused
- John treated some very cruelly
303
why was justice a motive of the barons?
- John had almost total control of legal system; accused to using arbitrary power to benefit himself
- punishments for crimes often seen as unfair and John accused of selling justice
304
what were the main provisions of the Magna Carta?
1. English church free; churchmen decided by church
2. inheritance fines set at £100
3. wards didn't have to pay fines to receive inheritance when they came of age
7. when husband dies, widow get inheritance at once without paying for it
8. widow shouldn't be forced to marry but couldn't marry without consent of their lord
12. scutage/aid only raised with agreement of barons
20. fines for freemen levied in proportion to crime and shouldn't deprive freeman of livelihood
21. barons only fined after trial/proportionate to crime
39. freemen couldn't be arrested/imprisoned/have land taken without fair trial by peers
40. king couldn't sell/delay/deny justice
51. if land taken without trial it should be given back
61. council of 25 barons, chosen by barons, would advise king/ensure keeping to charter; if king refuses, him/family couldn't be attacked but possessions/lands could be taken
305
what was the civil war which broke out two months after the Magna Carta came into force known as?
First Barons' War
306
how did the first barons' war build up?
- John agreed to Magna Carta as delaying tactic
- shortly after signing it he sought pope's help
- pope issues papal bull declaring Magna Carta void as John forced into it; said would excommunicate anyone trying to enforce it
- John renounced Magna Carta
- rebel barons decided no point trying to negotiate with John again
- they invited prince Louis, son of Philip II of france to become king of England; promised land to king of Scotland if he sent forces to help them
307
what happened at Rochester?
- Rochester castle important strategically as on route from dover to London and would be needed to defend/attack capital
- rebels took control of it in October 1215
- John arrived shortly after, took control of town and laid siege to castle
- rebels held out for seven weeks before surrendering 30 November
- John then marched north; recovered land taken by king of Scotland including Berwick castle
- by march 1216, only London still held out against John
308
what were some features of the siege of Rochester?
- bridges destroyed, preventing supplies from reaching castle
- five siege machines pounded high/thick walls with stones
- miners dug under walls of castle, one tower collapsed
309
why did the barons turn to Philip II's son, Louis?
- John had powerful supporters e.g. pope so barons needed to gain powerful supporter also
- king of france had more money to pay for a war; Louis would bring financial support and weapons/siege equipment
- Louis could bring experienced soldiers
- few rebel barons had extensive military experience (Louis did)
310
what happened during the invasion of Louis?
- landed in kent on 21 may with 1200 knights
- John retreated as didn't want to face Louis in battle
- Louis quickly took most of Kent inc. Rochester castle
- he arrived in London to hero's welcome
- by end of July rebel forces retaken control of Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk; took control of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; in August Alexander II of Scotland took Carlisle
- more barons joined rebels; some e.g. earl of salisbury, switched sides; bout 2/3 of barons now supported rebels
- 15 October: John died of dysentery
311
who was john's successor?
his nine-year-old son Henry
312
what did John do to try to help his son's succession?
named 13 barons to rule as a council
313
what was the issue with succession after John died?
- succession of child led to instability in the past
- one member of council, William marshal, knew Henry had to be crowned before rebels crowned Louis
- London in rebel hands so Henry crowned in Gloucester on 28 October
314
what did the council do on 11 November to aid Henry?
- elected William marshal as protector/regent
- this meant Henry had a powerful baron with great military experience/diplomatic skills to rule in his name
315
what did William marshal do as protector?
- took Henry and royal court to Bristol where amended Magna Carta issued
316
what happened after William marshal agreed to Magna Carta?
- clever move as Magna Carta now had church's support so by agreeing to it, William marshal removed original reasons barons rebelled
- some barons switched sides but by end of 1216 royalists still had disadvantages
317
what did Louis do in 1217 and what did it cause?
- returned to france for more troops and resources
- more rebels switched sides and royalists began to win back control of country
- 12 September 1217, peace made and Louis gave up claim to throne
318
what were the advantages of the rebels and louis?
- directly controlled large section of country
- held London; vital as centre of trade
- land on English side of Scottish and welsh borders controlled by Llywelyn of Wales and Alexander II of Scotland
- French backing = more money than royalists
- rebels and French outnumbered royalists
319
what were the advantages of the royalists?
- Henry played no parts in father's reign as so young so rebels had no complaints against him
- led by William marshal as protector/regent, ruling counsel made of powerful barons with experience in warfare
- Henry had support of church; the papal legate arrived in November
- most English people wanted English king not French one so Henry had popular support
- John built up English navy which was relatively strong
320
who ruled England in 1216?
- parts under control by barons and Louis
- borders to Wales and Scotland under control of Prince llywelyn and king Alexander II respectively
- rest of England under royal control but ruled by protector William marshal with support of council of nobles and pope
321
how was England's economy in 1216?
- trade, farming and all economic life seriously disrupted by civil war
- people far worse off
- huge taxes and aids raised by John left many short of money
- crown treasury had spent all money it collected on war so England nearly bankrupt
