Russia and the Soviet Union Flashcards
1
Q
What is Bolshevism?
A
Communist form of Government adopted in Russia following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917
2
Q
Who is Vladimir Lenin?
A
A Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist who as the founder and head of government of Soviet Russia form 1917, until his death in 1924.
3
Q
What Were the Origins of Bolshevism Ideology?
A
- Bolshevik Ideology stems from ‘The Communist Manifesto’ (1848).
- Marx’s 1840’s work outlined the exploitation of the working class by capital owners.
- He envisioned a revolution where the proletariat
4
Q
What Was the 1917 October Coup?
A
- The Bolshevik Revolution, also known as the October Revolution, occurred in early November 1917.
- The Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, decided to seize power.
5
Q
What Were Some Key Features of the Early Soviet Government?
A
- Bolsheviks controlled a small part of Russia, including Moscow, by the end of 1917.
- The government’s survival required removing Russia from war, restoring the economy, and establishing effective political rule.
- Lenin led the government, with Trotsky as Foreign Affairs Minister.
6
Q
What is the Sovnarkom?
A
It was the highest executive authority in Soviet Russia and later the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1946. It was formed by Vladimir Lenin in October 1917 as the government of the new revolutionary regime following the October Revolution
7
Q
What Were Some of the Key Decrees of the Bolsheviks after They Took Power?
A
- Decree on Land – took land from the upper class and gave it to peasants
- Decree on peace – outlined that Sovnarkom had intentions to secure peace with Russia’s enemies as an urgent matter.
- Decree on work – established 8 hour day and 48 hour week for industrial workers.
- Decree on marriage – made it easier for married couples to get a divorce and allowed non-religious weddings.
8
Q
How Did Early Decrees Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
By forcing the other political parties to dissolve, this removed a major issue that the Bolsheviks would’ve faced, allowing for them to easily consolidate their power.
9
Q
How Did The Brest-Litovsk Treaty Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
In theory, the peace that would have come out of this treaty would’ve allowed the Bolsheviks to have space to get a grip on the country and fully consolidate their power within Russia, but instead they faced a civil war quickly after this newfound peace.
10
Q
What Was the Brest-Litovsk Treaty?
A
- Removed Russia’s involvement in WW1, but it had geographical consequences for them as they lost key land, it had economic impacts by impacting industries, as well as social impacts on the people.
- It removed the major concern of the German threat, however they also lost many people as a result of the handing over of new land.
- For Lenin, the immediate crucial issue facing his new government was the conclusion of peace with Germany.
11
Q
How Did The Civil War Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
- The civil war allowed the Bolsheviks to eliminate their opposition.
- Under Trotsky’s leadership, the creation of the Red Army proved useful as they defeated many opponents and troops.
- Because of the war, a policy called War Communism started being utilised, promoting national industrialisation, and the expropriation of private businesses, it also forced requisition of surplus grains and other foods by the peasantry, further promoting and consolidating Bolshevik power.
12
Q
How Did Terror (by the Cheka and the Red Army) Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
The Cheka and the Red Army were pivotal in consolidating Bolshevik power after the October Revolution. The Cheka’s campaign of political repression, known as the Red Terror, eliminated opposition through mass arrests and executions, instilling fear and deterring dissent. Meanwhile, the Red Army centralized military power under Bolshevik control. Together, these actions not only removed immediate threats to Bolshevik rule but also established a culture of state terror that legitimized their authority and reinforced centralized control.
13
Q
How Did War Communism Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
War Communism succeeded in ensuring the Red Army was kept with food and rations and won the Civil War in 1920. However, its aim of sharing Russia’s wealth equally was not achieved. In the countryside, many peasants realised there was no point producing more food then needed to feed their families as surplus food was taken by the government, therefore in 1919 peasants grew less grain and bread fewer animals resulting in a food shortage in 1920 and a famine in 1921.
14
Q
How Did the New Economic Policy Help the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power from 1917-1924?
A
Many Bolsheviks were outraged by the NEP, arguing that it was a step backwards from their communist aspirations and a step towards the old capitalist system.
15
Q
What Was the Civil War?
A
- After the Bolsheviks seizure of power in November 1917, an uneasy peace prevailed inside Russia.
- Opponents of the Bolsheviks took several months to organise a proper resistance to the new regime.
- The Civil War was a conflict between the Bolsheviks and their opposition.
16
Q
What is War Communism?
A
Refers to the series of extreme policies which Lenin introduced from mid 1918 to deal with the disastrous economic and military situation. War Communism involved the imposition of state control over economic production, distribution and grain output, and widespread state terror to achieve this control.
17
Q
What was the New Economic Policy (NEP)?
A
War Communism had alienated the peasants, wrecked the economy and created ongoing opposition to communist rule. Lenin decided to reverse the policy, ending war communism and introducing the New Economic Policy, allowing for a partial return to capitalism. However, Lenin had no intention of easing up on political control and the authoritarian nature of the communist regime strengthened.
As a result of the various rebellions, the NEP was introduced by Lenin in 1921.
○ Grain requisitioning ceased
○ Peasants were permitted to sell their produce for profit, however, they did have to pay an agricultural tax.
○ Ordinary people were allowed to open small businesses.
○ Money was reintroduced and workers paid in cash rather than goods.
○ Trade unions were given limited freedom to operate.
Hours of work were shortened
18
Q
What Were the Immediate Impacts of the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power?
A
- The destruction of all political opposition as a result of the Red Army’s victory in the Civil War.
- Starvation was prevalent following the civil war and victory had come at a greater economic cost due to war communism.
- Weakened security of the regime
War communism had played a major role in the communist victory, but had a massive economic cost.
19
Q
What Were the Long Term Impacts of the Bolshevik Consolidation of Power?
A
- The party was no longer democratic.
- It had become highly centralised, bureaucratic and a hierarchal organisation
20
Q
Why Did the Bolsheviks Succeed in their Consolidation of Power?
A
- Maintained their vision of world socialism and had a ruthless determination to hold onto power at all costs.
- Because the country was falling apart (economically, socially, geographically) this enable the Bolsheviks to hold on. Opposition to the Bolsheviks was weak and disunited.
- Bolsheviks were able to retain sufficient support (despite their betrayal of many principles of 1917)
21
Q
Who is Joseph Stalin?
A
Joseph Stalin was a Soviet politician, revolutionary and political theorist who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held power as General Secretary of the Communist Party and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
22
Q
How Did Lenin Die?
A
- In August of 1918, Lenin was hit with two bullets which remained in his body until his death.
- In the last two years of his life, Lenin suffered 3 strokes, and by later 1923, he was having difficulty moving and speaking.
- He suffered a stroke on the morning of the 24th of January, 1924, and died later that day.
- Lenin’s eventual death was an opportunity for Joseph Stalin to build up support as the Bolshevik Party’s general secretary, especially as he one of 5 potential successors of the Soviet Union.
23
Q
Name the Possible Candidates for Leader of the USSR After Lenin?
A
- Leon Trotsky
- Gregori Zinoviev
- Lev Kamenev
- Nikolai Bukharin
- Joseph Stalin
24
Q
Describe Leon Trotsky as a Candidate for Leader of the USSR After Lenin?
A
- Seemed the most likely to follow Lenin
- Largely responsible for the Red victory in the Civil War
- Disliked by many due to his arrogance
- Wanted to radically transform the economy
- Failed to attend Lenin’s funeral
- Promoted a return to democratic centralisation
25
Describe Joseph Stalin as a Candidate for Leader of the USSR After Lenin?
- Seemed the least likely to assume power
- Lacked charisma and was not liked by Lenin
- However, he had built up a powerful power base in party bureaucracy
- Completely underestimated
26
What Was the Power Struggle Within the Soviet Union?
- As Lenin had founded the Bolsheviks/ Russian Communist Party and it was gaining significant traction, there was a lot of competition for head of state.
- The main five were Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Nikolai Bukharin.
- After Lenin’s death, he was mourned by the Russian people as he had stood as a symbol of hope for a more equal and free society after they had suffered under an autocracy for so long.
- How the big 5 acted after Lenin’s death was crucial in garnering support and a chance at seizing power. Trotsky, while favoured by Lenin in his last days, was not viewed very well in the wake of Lenin’s death, as he was not present due to an illness. When the other 4 went to pay their, it made Trotsky look quite bad. Stalin then gave him the incorrect funeral date which added to the public disapproval of Trotsky.
27
What Was the Immediate Aftermath of the Power Struggle in the USSR?
- By the end of the 1920's, Stalin was totalling in control of the party
- In 1927, Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky were accused of forming a "United Opposition". Their crime is factionalism and they are expelled from the party.
- In 1929, Bukharin is forced out of the Politburo
Stalin was now able to fill all key party positions with his own appointments
28
What is the Politburo?
The Politburo, short for Political Bureau, was the supreme policy-making body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and effectively the highest governing authority in the Soviet Union
29
What is the Power Politics School of Thought Theory?
- Stalin’s rise to power was a result of his deliberate and skilful manipulation of genuine political and ideological differences amongst the Bolshevik leaders.
- His aims = to gain supreme power, make himself a revolutionary hero by crushing all opposition.
- His success = due to his political ruthlessness and weaknesses of rivals.
Historians = Robert Conquest, Robert C. Tucker, Edward Carr, Stephen Cohen, Isaac Deutscher
30
What is the Ideological Explanation School of Thought Theory?
- There were genuine political differences amongst the communist leaders of the 1920s. Stalin’s political positions just persuaded people.
- Stalin’s policies and ideas were in tune with the majority of the party membership who desired stability above all.
- His policy of continuing NEP and ‘socialism in one country’ seemed safer than Trotsky’s idea of ‘permanent revolution’.
Historians = Alexander Ehrlich, Moshe Lewin
31
What Were the 7 Reasons for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
1. Stalin's Control of the Party Machine
2. The Death of Lenin
3. Surviving Lenin's Wil
4. Development and Abuse of the Cult of Lenin
5. The Contrasts Between Stalin and Trotsky
6. Luck, Opportunism, and How to Play the Game
7. Stalin's Understanding of the Mood of the Country
32
How Did Stalin's Control of the Party Machine Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Russia was quickly evolving into a one-party dictatorship.
- No political parties and opposing views could exist and major decisions had to be made in the Politburo.
- The party controlled the nation - whoever control the part controls the nation.
To control the party, one did not have to be its leading light to whom all looked up with admiration and for guidance.
33
How Did the Death of Lenin Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Before his death, Lenin accused Stalin of rudeness and formally stated that he would deal with Stalin, only on an official basis.
- If Lenin had pushed for Stalin's removal, that would have been the end of Stalin. Lenin's death was thus, timely.
- Stalin did not need Lenin as other leading party figures did.
34
How Did Surviving Lenin's Will Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- In his will, Lenin had promoted the idea of removing Stalin from the post of General Secretary. Lenin's position was untouchable; his words were holy writ - if Lenin's push for Stalin's removal became known, his career would have been over.
- It contained negative comments on all party leaders, however, it was most damaging to Stalin.
35
How Did the Development and Abuse of the Cult of Lenin Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Stalin set about developing a 'cult of Lenin', raising Lenin up to an almost divine status.
- Stalin's skilful manipulation of the Leninist cult, and his ability to present himself as totally loyal to Lenin:
- Stalin tricked Trotsky into missing Lenin's funeral = Trotsky's absence from Lenin's funeral looked bad and had people commenting on Trotsky's arrogance.
- Stalin made a habit of using Lenin to support anything he said.
36
How Did the Contrasts Between Stalin and Lenin Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Nobody suspected him of ambition and so nobody feared giving Stalin additional responsibilities and additional power.
- Stalin always seemed to have time to talk to people. He kept his views to himself but listened patiently and attentively.
37
How Did luck, Opportunism, and Playing the Game Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Lenin's illness and premature death were of great benefit to Stalin.
- Trotsky's absence from Lenin's funeral = blackened Trotsky's reputation.
- Zinoviev's speech to the Central Committee in which he advised against the publication of Lenin's will saved Stalin.
- He used key positions within the party to place "his" people in positions and to pack Congresses with people loyal to him.
38
How Did Stalin's Understanding of the Mood of the Country Allow for the Emergence of Stalin as a Leader of the USSR:
- Stalin understood that the people of Russia wanted a rest from the strains of war and revolution and there was still a strong nationalist feeling within the country.
§ He knew that the Russian people had enough crusading and campaigning and they wanted a period of peace.
§ NEP offered a period of calm and consolidation.
- By supporting Bukharin and NEP, Stalin was showing that he understood the mood of the country, and so was able to outflank Trotsky.
39
who are the kulak?
the wealthy peasants, who Stalin wanted to liquidate through collectivism and the holodomor
40
what is the holodomor?
The Holodomor, also known as the Ukrainian Famine, was a mass famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of Ukrainians. The Holodomor was part of the wider Soviet famine of 1930–1933 which affected the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union.
41
what is collectivisation?
- The process of turning small, privately owned agricultural plots into large, productive, farms.
42
what were the main aims of Stalin's collectivisation?
1. Accumulate capital and fund industrialisation
2. Construct socialism in the countryside.
3. Eliminate classes in the countryside
4. Modernise agriculture
5. Gain control over the countryside
43
what was the purpose of the five-year plans?
The Five Year Plans aimed to achieve rapid industrialisation within the USSR, placing a major focus on heavy industry.
44
what was the aim of the first of the five year plans?
- Concentrated on heavy industry
- Aimed to increase national income by 200% and industrial output by 250%
45
what was the aim of the second of the five year plans?
- Placed a greater emphasis on B class industries (consumer goods)
46
what were the positive impacts of the five year plans?
○ The overall industrial output in the USSR increased by an average of 12-17% per annum during the five-year plans.
○ The Soviet propaganda machine successfully mobilised support and promoted feelings of nationalism and patriotic sacrifice.
○ Many people, especially young citizens, willingly volunteered to work in some of the country's most inhospitable regions.
○ Incentives such as higher wages for skilled workers and social benefits were introduced.
○ 1500 major projects were completed between 1928 and 1933.
Large increases in industrial and technical workers across the USSR.
46
what was the aim of the third of the five year plans?
- Focused on heavy industry and building armaments.
47
what were the negative impacts of the five year plans?
○ Loss of freedom and workers rights.
○ Bad living conditions, lacking amenities.
○ Due to the pressure to fulfill targets, there was an immense fear that built up, causing rampant bribery and corruption.
○ Immense environmental impacts.
○ Lack of coordination between sectors.
○ Slave labour and forced labour resulted in a lack of rights and oppression was used to achieve outcomes.
Whilst Soviet industry grew in scale, it didn't necessarily grow in quality or efficiency.
48
how did the political transformation under stalin impact the growth of the party?
* Stalin's government was manipulated to gain power, establishing an unassailable power base in the 1920's.
* His revolution sought socialism in a backward country, resulting in economic, cultural, and social changes.
* This revolution emerged through phases, including purges and terror in the mid 1930's.
Lenin and Trotsky focused on governing Russia and securing power.
49
how did the political transformation under stalin impact the use of terror?
Stalin utilised terror to:
- Maintain power
- Instil fear to ensure total support from the state
- Paranoid after the death of family members
* Terror drove political transformations, particularly the Great Terror, led by Stalin.
* He oversaw the elimination of resistance and expanded the secret police, NKVD, from 1929 to 1953.
* Historians estimate that 20 million people were killed during the Stalinist era, with over 600 000 executed during the Great Purge of 1936 to 1938.
* The purges began with the murder of Sergei Kiron in 1934, likely ordered by Stalin himself. Massive arrests followed, including party officials, old Bolsheviks, and ordinary citizens.
The key instrument of terror utilised by Stalin's regime was the NKVD:
- Responsible for the rounding up of political dissidents and other enemies of state
Organised mass deportations.
50
what were show trials used by stalin?
* A show trial is a judicial trial held in public with the intention of influencing or satisfying public opinion, rather than ensuring justice. In the context of Russia, show trials referred to members of the party and the public being accused of crimes and forced to confess to these crimes for the benefit of Stalin's own personal motivations.
- They provided a theatrical display of 'justice'.
- They validated Stalin's accusations, portraying him as trustworthy.
* The Moscow show trials in 1937, 1937, and 1938, were a series of public trials where prominent Communists were accused of plotting against Stalin.
Many confessed to being in places where they supposedly plotted against Stalin.
51
what were the gulags utilised by stalin?
* The Gulags were concentration camps operated by the NKVD to hold and 'rehabilitate' dissidents including Stalin's political opposition, criminals, and individual's/families who were victims of purges.
* They operated from 1930-1955.
* The Gulags were an essential instrument of terror used to spread fear amongst the general population.
Gulag's enabled Stalin to remove any opposition or claims to power other than his won.
52
how was propaganda used by stalin?
* Propaganda depicted Stalin in a positive light and raised him to an almost divine status.
* The 1919 Decree on the Press gave the Soviet government the emergency power to close down any newspapers which opposed or dissented against the Stalinist regime.
* Between 1928 and 1939, 16 453 publications were taken out of circulation and more than 24 million copies of various products were destroyed.
53
how was censorship used by stalin?
* Media items could be censored for wide range of reasons including material deemed to:
- Encourage opposition
- Promote nationalist or religious extremism
Include too much crude or sexual content.
54
what was the official ideology under Stalin?
* Marxist-Leninism
* Stalinism and 'Socialist-in-one-country'
Socialist-Realism
55
how was religion censored?
* Churches and organised religions were condemned. By a decree in 1929, Stalin forbade the churches to engage in any other activity than worship.
56
how was the role of women effected?
* The USSR made strong attempts to promote the ideals of motherhood in women. This was done through various methods including:
* Increased funding in hospitals and services to support mothers.
* Birth bonuses for women with 7 or more children.
* Abortion was criminalized in May 1936.
Divorce also became harder, and more expensive.
57
how was the role of families effected?
* Abortion was made illegal unless it was deemed to be necessary for the health of the mother.
* Divorce was made difficult to obtain and was deliberately made more expensive.
* The government increased child support benefits, which encouraged families to have more children.
Homosexuality and prostitution were made illegal.
58
how was arts and culture impacted?
* At the opening of the Union of Soviet Writers in August 1934, the government announced 'socialist realism' as the only form of acceptable art. It was expected to be optimistic, positive, and extol the virtues of the regime.
Many artists were purged as they didn't cooperate with the Soviet government.
59
how was education impacted?
* By the early 1930's, Stalin called for an end to the cultural revolution. Russia needed educated and disciplined citizens and all he could see were schools in chaos. There was an immediate shift to a more conservative and conventional approach to schools and education in general.
60
what was the nature of soviet foreign policy?
- The main aim of Soviet foreign policy was to spread the word of Marxist-Leninism and its duty was to incite socialist revolutions in other countries. - In order to promote world revolution, the Communist International, or Comintern, was established in 1919.
- The period from 1917-1921 was characterised by one simple aim: survive.
- The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pulled Russia out of the war and the regime had to weather the civil war, war with Poland and Allied intervention.
- The 1920's aimed to normalise relations with other nations and revive the Soviet economy.
The 1930's, with the onset of the Great Depression, the ambiguity in the Soviet foreign policy returned with new talk of the global proletariat revolution coming.
61
what was the role of ideology in foreign policy?
- The fundamental aim of foreign policy in the 1930s was to avoid being drawn into a war, from either the east or west
- The course of Soviet foreign policy at this time was not a consistent one
- There were real attempts to work with Western powers and commitment to collective security while attempts were also made to reach an accommodation with Nazi Germany
Collective security: The notion that if one county became the target of aggression, other countries would rally behind that country in opposition to the aggressor. It was enshrined in Article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.
