Rome Flashcards

1
Q

How important was the gods satisfaction?

A

Romans believes the states was only safe if the gods were satisfied. Religion and the state are connected;
pax deorum (peace of the gods) was the goal; state priests conducted sacrifices, festivals

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2
Q

How was roman religion unappealing to many Romans?

A

• There was no individual conform of spiritual guidance in state religion – this made is unappealing to many
Romans

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3
Q

What did the gods look like to the romans?

A

• Roman religion was polytheistic (worshipped many gods); the gods were anthropomorphic (they had the
same characteristics as humans – looks, emotions, desires, they could reproduce BUT they were immortal
and free from human misery

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4
Q

Describe prayers in Roman religion:

A

• Prayers were a ritual of worship and a way of contacting the gods; use the correct name; select the
function of the god; don’t ask for too much and offend the god; use correct wording and order – if incorrect
had to be started again; flutes played to block out noise; mistakes meant prayer had to be started again
and ask the god again for forgiveness; small bells used to attract gods attention; see example of state
prayer gone wrong; many Romans confused about who to pray to; were the gods even listening

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5
Q

What were votive offerings?

A

• Votive offerings made by individuals or the state; offering made before a witness and accompanied by a
prayer; very common with Romans

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6
Q

Describe sacrifices:

A

• Sacrifices: to ask gods for help; thank the gods; celebration; before a large battle; before a large occasion
of state – blood sacrifice; valuable articles; temples; statues; food; inscriptions
• White beasts to the upper gods; black to the lower gods; male victims for gods; female for goddesses;
procession to altar – ribbons on the horns of the victim; priests washed hands - silence apart from flute –
priests covered head – victims horns sprinkled with salted meal and on the knife – wine poured on the
victims head – prayer to the god – victim lead to the altar – someone says ‘I do strike’ and the beast is
struck with an axe – victims throat is slit head up for upper air gods head down for lower gods – internal
organs removed for inspection – if no defects cut up and burned for the god
• Libation is a liquid sacrifice – unmixed wine, perfumed oil, milk, honey

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7
Q

Describe omens;

A

• Omens – messages from the gods; signa impetrativa – signs asked for: taking auspices, watching birds fly,
observing birds eating (cult of the sacred chickens), watching lightning. Priests called augurs advised
magistrates on the signs.
• Signa oblativa – signs not asked for – story of Servius Tullius whose head spontaneously burst into flames
as a sign from the gods that he was destined for great things
• Examining entrails – haruspicium – 60 state priests who were able to decide if an omen was good or bad.
Innards (liver, gall bladder, heart, lungs) were checked for unusual marks and their shape; often happened
before military battles and decisions of state.
• Dreams were interpreted as the gods communicated with the Romans in their sleep
• Sibylline Books – written in Greek by the Sibyl at Cumae. Consulted at times of crisis (war, plague, natural
crisis) by the 15 men; original books destroyed by fire and replaced in 76BC; lasted until 400 BC. Romans
did not consult oracles but did consult the books; their messages were deliberately ambiguous so that they
could not be proven wrong; their advice was always taken by the government.

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8
Q

Describe the prietshoods;

A

• Priesthoods were a job within the Roman government – not like modern priests. Roman priests were
officials of the state; it was not a dedication for life but just treated like a normal job.
• Many politicians used priesthoods to advance their political career (Cicero, Julius Caesar). The chief priest
was the Pontifex Maximus.
• Pontiffs – senior priests; assist the magistrates of the state and advised on the actions to be taken for
omens; responsible for the state calendar fixing dates for festivals; headed by the pontifex maximus –
many politicians wanted this position increase their personal influence but didn’t have the interests of the
state at heart
• Augurs – interpreted the meanings of omens; shown carrying a staff and wearing a robe; they took the
auspicies and interpret the signs (signa impetrativa) they also interpreted signa oblativa; the role of open to
abuse and they misinterpreted messages meet their own needs.
• Haruspices – interpreted the entrails of animals; it was a very old Roman tradition; politicians used
haruspices to justify their various actions and policies; many were independent of the state groups
• Quindecemviri (15 men) – interpreted the Sibylline books during times of national crisis

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9
Q

What were the vestal virgins?

A

• Vestal Virgins tended to the goddess Vesta; lived in the temple of Vesta; 6 women of noble birth chosen
between 6 – 10 years old with no physical disabilities; 30 year of service to the goddess – 10 training, 10
worshipping, 10 training another priestess; punished for taking a lover.
• Made offerings of food to the hearth everyday; tended to the sacred fire of Vesta; fire couldn’t go out;
attended religious ceremonies of state; look after the wills of important people
• Not under the control of their father/family; under the control of the Pontifex Maximus; could own property
and make a will; got a special allowance of money; free to marry after 30 years of service; could annul a
death sentence of a prison on their way to an execution
• Punished by live burial for loss of virginity; whipping for serious crime (letting the fire of Vesta go out).
• Temple of Vesta – held the sacred flame; in the forum a central location; very ancient from the time of
Aeneas one of the legendary founder of Troy

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10
Q

What was the Lupercalia?

A

• Lupercalia – February, very popular, origins unknown; don’t know the name of the god it was in honour of
• Two teams of young men met in a cave on the Palatine hill; sacrificed dogs and goats; feasted and got
drunk; smeared themselves in victims blood, dressed in animal skins and raced around the hill; whipped
women with leather strips of goat skin to encourage fertility; huge crowds; lots of drunken disorder;
• Possibly an ancient festival to protect land/animals from wolves; for women it was a chance to promote
fertility and gain favour from the gods to have children; it was good fun for many young men and they
enjoyed taking part in the worship

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11
Q

What were festivals?

A

• Religious festivals included: public prayers, parades, sacrifices, music and feasting, public games such a
gladiator and animal fights
• Ordinary Romans enjoyed the festivals as they were entertaining and a time to socialise

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12
Q

What was the saturnalia?

A

• Saturnalia – in December in honour of the god Saturn (god of agriculture) and Jupiter,
• Public sacrifice at Saturn’s temple; representation of Saturn there so he could take part; courts closed with
no criminal being punished; atmosphere of good fun and enjoyment; small gifts exchanged; gambling was
allowed; people wore special felt cap known as a pilleus; rich families sacrifices a pig; slaves and masters
sometimes swapped place/ slaves were given a feast and special privileges and freedoms for the festival
• It was a very old festival but with origins in the worship of Saturn; but many people were probably more
interested in having a good time; it was a time or role reversal and a change in social structures; it was also
a change to spend time with family and exchange gifts

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13
Q

What was the imperial cult?

A

• Imperial Cult – the practice of worshipping the emperor; it was an eastern tradition; not a Roman tradition
and many Romans during the Republic were not keen on the practice.
• Many people in the provinces within the Roman empire wanted to worship the emperor to show their loyalty
to him; eastern provinces wanted to worship some emperor as a living god

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14
Q

How did emperors let themselves be worshiped?

A

• Augustus had statues depicted of him aligned with the god Jupiter holding an orb which was symbol of the
world; Augustus expected the Romans to worship the state and not him while he was alive
• Augustus only allowed his genius (spirit) to be worshipped before he died; the senate decreed that
Augustus should be worshipped as a god in the same way as the state gods
• Tiberius seems to have been resentful of his position as emperor; he allowed a single temple to be
dedicated to him in Smyrna; 11 cities wanted the honour
• Caligula set up his own temple; life-size statue of himself; very rich people wanted to be the chief priest in
order to keep on good terms with the emperor; thought he was immortal; made his sister into a goddess
• Claudius had the statues of Caligula removed; refused to have own genius worshipped – this annoyed the
senate but does show the importance and authority of the emperor; refused to be worshipped by the
Alexandrians in Egypt; he was made a god when he died
• Different emperors had very different attitudes – some embraced it; some abused it; some rejected it.

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15
Q

What was domestic religion?

A

• Religion free from foreign influence – purest form
• Paterfamilias – head of the family (father) in charge of the family religion; conducted sacrifices and prayers for
the family to the ancestral gods
• The ancestral spirits believed to protect the family and the house – always prayed to
• Families worshipped Vesta, Janus, Lares, Penates – practice of praying to these gods and spirits did not change
much over a long period of time
• Important events were religious occasions – birth, marriage, coming of age, death – these were important
because many contained an aspect of mystery or unknowing (birth and death); coming of age was special as so
many Romans died young; marriage was a contract between to people and the gods
• Domestic religion was much more personal than state religion; important part of young Roman lives

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16
Q

Who was Janus? And how did a bride receive his/ household gods favour?

A

• Janus – god of the door – special protection; lots of gods connected to the door (Forculus; Limentinus and Lima)
• Bride carried across the threshold of a house – standing on it would offend the gods
• Bride had to win the favour of the gods – door posts were covered in wolf or pig fat by the new bride

17
Q

Who was vesta and how was she worshiped in the household?

A

• Vesta – goddess of the hearth – daughters baked sacred salt cake for Vesta (wife did it if no daughters)
• Cake thrown into the fire (hearth) after first course as an offering to Vesta – worship of Vesta was very old
• However, lots of families did not have fireplaces (archaeology from Pompeii shows this) which makes us
question how common this worship was
• Vestalia – 1st March – sacred flame relit by Pontifex Maximus
• 9th – 15th March – week of celebration for Vesta – cleaning out the store cupboard; Vesta was symbolic of
women and housekeeping; good to keep homes clean and tidy
• Special holiday for bakers and millers – millstones and mill animals decorated with violets
• Preparation for new harvest – bakers and millers relied on a good harvest; good harvest = more food

18
Q

Who were the penates?

A

• Penates – guardians of the store cupboard – helped to ensure the prosperity of the household.
• No impure person was allowed to touch the store cupboard – bad luck! Commonly looked after by children who
were seen as being more innocent and purer than adults

19
Q

Who were the lares?

A

• Lares – guardian spirits of the house – watched over the safety and prosperity of the family – prayed to in times
of crisis
• Some believed: spirits of the ancestors; others believe they were the spirits of the fields; well-established belief
• Lares were worshipped at the lararium in the atrium of the Roman house
• Depicted as small dancing figures with short wavy hair; short tunics (dresses); held drinking horns and small
plates which they would use for making libations (liquid sacrifices)
• Worshipped as part of daily routine – lararium shrine was inside the house; special offerings made on special
days of the month and at special occasions (birthdays, coming of age ceremonies; weddings).
• Poor and rich people worshipped – their offerings reflected their wealth status, how religious they were; how
special the occasion was: flowers, fruit, honey, incense
• Figures of the Lares sometimes put on the dinner table
• Hard to know how many people worshipped and how seriously it was taken – lots of mention of the Lares in the
literature from Rome indicating that it was well known and popular

20
Q

What was the genius?

A

• Genius – protecting spirit of a man (free or slave; rich or poor); embodiment of the life force of the paterfamilias
and the household; shown as a man with a hooded toga
• Sometime shown as a bearded snake on household shrines – female equivalent known as the juno
• Special prayers said to the genius at birthdays and weddings

21
Q

What was birth until coming of age like for a roman?

A

• Birth – praying to the god help to ensure a safe birth; keeping the baby alive through infancy; protection for the
mother; prayers to Juno Luncina (brought the baby into the light); prayers to Diana – visiting the temple
• Wreaths on doors to announce birth; show happy family; protect child from evil spirits
• Father had to accept the baby into the household; exposed if rejected; 8th day (girls) 9th (boys) bulla given to
child 9 days to see if the child dies before naming; bulla is a charm to help protect the child from evil spirits;
• Coming of age – between 14-18; boy becoming a man; girl becoming a wife; offerings made to the lares; purple
toga replaced with a white toga for boys; girls dedicate toys to the Lares night before wedding; boys shave for
first time and name added to list of citizens; celebratory meal; girls had no choice in this – father made decisions

22
Q

How did the romans get early tolerate foreign religions?

A

Romans were generally tolerant of other religions if they posed no threat; Romans realised attacking religion caused
more problems than it solved (Druidism); attitudes towards religious tolerance changed with different emperors;
Romans expected all people to show respect towards their gods (even if they didn’t actually believe)

23
Q

What would cause the romans to attack religions?

A

• Roman attacked some religions as they saw them as politically disruptive, socially dangerous or did not conform to
Roman authority

24
Q

How did the Romans integrate foreign religion?

A

• Expansion of the Roman empire meant coming into contact with many gods; sometimes the Romans merged these with their own gods (syncretism).

25
Q

What was the relationship between romans and the Jews?

A

• Judaism – Jewish religion with a very long past; settled in Rome in the early period; initially no practices which were
offensive; allowed to worship in their own way; not allowed to convert others to Judaism; annual Temple Tax sent to
Jerusalem from Jews in Rome allowed
• Some hostility towards Jews – people thought they were superstitious; they didn’t engage in Roman state worship; set
apart from Roman society; they did prayer for the safety of the emperor
• In Judea – Roman officials were harsh and uncaring to the Jewish population; Caligula tried to put a statue of himself
up in the holy temple in Jerusalem; Jews revolted in 66 AD; Romans destroyed the temple; heavy taxes on the Jews
still to be paid; women and children had to pay tax; money went to the temple of Jupiter- harsh.
• Overview – at first Judaism tolerated by Romans; Augustus order they be allowed to worship in peace
• Extremist Jews (Zealots) grew in influence in the east; refused to pay tax to Rome or pray to Roman gods
• Romans became more suspicious of Jews; tensions grew
• Rome ordered sacrifices to be made to Roman gods inside synagogues – very offensive to the Jews; great rebellion
caused in 66 AD – Jews exiled from Judea by Titus and Vespasian – holy temple destroyed.

26
Q

What was the relationship between Christianity and the romans?

A

• Christianity – settled in Rome in middle 1st century AD; initially difficult to tell difference between Christians and Jews
• Some Romans saw the appeal of Christianity – moral code to live by; heaven; open to all; cared for the needy; based
on love and friendship; women could be involved – early Christian church had female priestesses and deaconesses
• Some Roman misunderstood Christianity: met in private – what were they hiding?; drank the body and blood of Christ
– cannibalism; God presented love – was this sexual? Roman station religion had no mention of love; referred to each
other as brother and sister – incestuous?; didn’t take part in state religion – why not?; even the Jews thought they
were odd and not normal
• Christians were blamed (scapegoats) for the fire of Rome in 64 AD – easy to blame Christians as they were already
not popular; easy target
• Pliny the Younger when a Roman governor was unsure how to deal with Christians – Emperor Trajan told him not to
hunt them down; anonymous claims of Christianity were to ignored; if put on trial they had to be given the opportunity
to repent and worship Roman gods – if not then executed.
• Different approaches from different emperors; Trajan was relatively fair in his treatment; Nero supposedly burned them
as candles, tortured them, and scapegoated them for the fire
• Christians were monotheistic (one-god) and this was superstitious to the Romans who had worshipped many gods for
a long time
• When the Jews were being persecuted the Christians were guilty by association – because Christianity was born out
of Judaism; the leader Jesus was a criminal and crucified for his crimes

27
Q

What was the relationship between the druids and the romans?

A

• Druidism – Druids priests of the Celtic tribes; contact with the Romans in Gaul and Britain; no written information from
Celtic tribes – all information comes from Roman and Greek writers – bias and unreliable.
• According to Caesar – all religious matters were controlled by Druids in Gaul and Britain; 20 years of training to be a
Druid; human sacrifices to find out the will of the gods – stab the victim and see how the reacted; according to Roman
writers with altars covered in blood; this could all be anti-Celtic propaganda by Roman writers
• Tiberius and Claudius tried to suppress Druids in Gaul. But there is no evidence that Claudius tried to suppress the
Druids in Britain.
• Tiberius and Claudius likely to have attacked Gaul Druids: demonstration of Roman power; objectionable religious
practices (very different from Roman religion); social/political disruption.
• Evidence of Roman and Celtic relations being good – merging of Roman and Celtic gods – Sullis Minerva in Roman
Britain.

28
Q

Were people free to follow foreign religion?

A

• General tolerance: easier for Romans to embrace foreign religions than ask people to change; fusion of Roman and
native gods (interpretatio Romana); attitudes changes throughout time – some emperors kind others not so; Augustus
promoted traditional Roman religion
• Foreign worshipped expected to show respect to Roman gods and so to Rome; individuals were free to follow various
religions if it did not threat the traditional beliefs